tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39180134098638901912024-03-13T19:53:43.141-07:00English NotesUNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.comBlogger25125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-70422843970812238812017-06-15T01:31:00.001-07:002017-06-15T01:31:13.736-07:00Indian Writing in English: Revised University Syllabus BA English (Sem 1)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH<br />
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">UNIT I: INTRODUCTION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Arrival of East India Company
and the associated Impact<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">The East India Company (also the East India Trading Company,
English East IndiaCompany, and then the British East India Company) was an
early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing
trade with the East Indies, but that endedup trading mainly with the
Indian subcontinent and China. The oldest among severalsimilarly formed
European East India Companies, the Company was granted an EnglishRoyal Charter,
under the name Governor and Company of Merchants of London Tradinginto the East
Indies, by Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600. After a rival English
companychallenged its monopoly in the late 17th century, the two companies were
merged in1708 to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the
East Indies,commonly styled the Honourable East India Company, and abbreviated,
HEIC; theCompany was colloquially referred to as John Company, and in India as
CompanyBahadur (Hindustani bahādur, "brave"/"authority").The
East India Company traded mainly in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre,
tea, and, intoChina, illegal opium. The Company also came to rule large
swathes of India, exercisingmilitary power and assuming administrative
functions, to the exclusion, gradually, of itscommercial pursuits. Company
rule in India, which effectively began in 1757 after theBattle of Plassey,
lasted until 1858, when, following the events of the Indian
Rebellion of 1857, and under the Government of India Act
1858, the British Crown assumed directadministration of India in the new
British Raj. The Company itself was finally dissolvedon 1 January 1874, as a
result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act.The Company long held a
privileged position in relation to the English, and later the British,
government. As a result, it was frequently granted special rights
and privileges, including trade monopolies and exemptions. These caused
resentment among its competitors, who saw unfair advantage in
the Company's position. Despite this resentment, the Company remained a
powerful force for over 200 years. East Indian company is currently
owned by Mr.Sanjiv Mehta, entrepreneur born in Mumbai.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Indian trade links with
Europe started in through sea route only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama in
Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as
1510, and later founded three other colonies on the west coast in Diu, Bassein,
and Mangalore. In 1601 the East India Company was chartered, and the English
began their first inroads into the Indian Ocean. At first they were little
interested in India, but rather, like the Portuguese and Dutch before them,
with the Spice Islands. But the English were unable to dislodge the Dutch from
Spice Islands. In 1610, the British chased away a Portuguese naval squadron,
and the East India Company created its own outpost at Surat. This small outpost
marked the beginning of a remarkable presence that would last over 300 years
and eventually dominate the entire subcontinent. In 1612 British established a trading
post in Gujarat. As a result of English disappointments with dislodging the
Dutch from the Spice Islands, they turned instead to India. In 1614 Sir Thomas
Roe was instructed by James I to visit the court of Jahangir, the Mughal
emperor of Hindustan. Sir Thomas was to arrange a commercial treaty and to
secure for the East India Company sites for commercial agencies,
-"factories" as they were called. Sir Thomas was successful in
getting permission from Jahangir for setting up factories. East India Company
set up factories at Ahmedabad, Broach and Agra. In 1640 East India Company
established an outpost at Madras. In 1661 the company obtained Bombay from
Charles II and converted it to a flourishing center of trade by 1668. English
settlements rose in Orissa and Bengal. In 1633, in the Mahanadi delta of
Hariharpur at Balasore in Orissa, factories were set up. In 1650 Gabriel
Boughton an employee of the Company obtained a license for trade in Bengal. An
English factory was set up in 1651 at Hugli.
In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory. In 1698 the factory was
fortified and called Fort William. The villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and
Gobindpore were developed into a single area called Calcutta. Calcutta became a
trading center for East India Company. Once in India, the British began to
compete with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. Through a combination
of outright combat and deft alliances with local princes, the East India
Company gained control of all European trade in India by 1769. In 1672 the
French established themselves at Pondicherry and stage was set for a rivalry
between the British and French for control of Indian trade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Battle of Plassey - On
June 23rd, 1757 at Plassey, between Calcutta and Murshidabad, the forces of the
East India Company under Robert Clive met the army of Siraj-ud-Doula, the Nawab
of Bengal. Clive had 800 Europeans and 2200 Indians whereas Siraj-ud-doula in
his entrenched camp at Plassey was said to have about 50,000 men with a train
of heavy artillery. The aspirant to the Nawab's throne, Mir Jafar, was induced
to throw in his lot with Clive, and by far the greater number of the Nawab's
soldiers were bribed to throw away their weapons, surrender prematurely, and
even turn their arms against their own army. Siraj-ud-Doula was defeated.
Battle of Plassey marked the first major military success for British East
India Company.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Battle of Wandiwash
1760: From 1744, the French and English
fought a series of battles for supremacy in the Carnatic region. In the third
Carnatic war, the British East India Company defeated the French forces at the
battle of Wandiwash ending almost a century of conflict over supremacy in
India. This battle gave the British trading company a far superior position in
India compared to the other Europeans.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Battle of Buxar: In June 1763 under Major Adams British army
defeated Mir Kasim the Nawab of Bengal. Though they with a smaller army against
Mir Kasim, the English had victories at Katwah, Giria, Sooty, Udaynala and
Monghyr. Mir Kasim fled to Patna and took help from NawabShujauddaulah and the
Emperor Shah Alam II. But the English
under the General Major Hector Munro at Buxar defeated the confederate army on
22 October, 1764. Mir Kasim fled again fled and died in 1777. After winning the Battle of Buxar, the
British had earned the right to collect land revenue in Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa. This development set the foundations of British political rule in
India. After the victory of the English in Buxar Robert Clive was appointed the
governor and commander in chief of the English army in Bengal in 1765. He is
claimed as the founder of the British political dominion in India. Robert Clive
also brought reforms in the administration of the company and the organization
of the army.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Warren Hastings was
appointed the Governor of Bengal in 1772. Under the Regulating Act of 1773
passed by British parliament, a Council of four members was appointed, and
Warren Hastings (Governor-General 1774-85) was empowered to conduct the
Company's affairs with the Council's advice. His task was to consolidate the
Company's rule in Bengal. He brought about several administrative and judicial
changes. Warren Hasting faced an uphill task in dealing with the Indian rulers.
He faced stiff resistance from the Marathas in the north and Hyder Ali in the
south. In 1773 he concluded the treaty of Banaras with the Nawab of Avadh
appeasing the emperor and getting financial gains thus blocking alliances
between the Marathas and the Nawab of Avadh. Under Warren Hastings English army
took part in the Rohilla War in 1774 that brought Rohilkhand in the company's
jurisdiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The First Anglo-Mysore
War (1767-69)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After the death of the
Raja of Mysore in 1760, Hyder Ali, became the ruler of Mysore. He extended his
territories by conquering Bednore, Sundra, Sera, Canara and Guti and subjugated
the poligars of south India. With easy success in Bengal, the English concluded
a treaty with Nizam Ali of Hyderabad and committed the Company to help the
Nizam with the troops in his war against Hyder Ali. In 1767, - the Nizam, the
Marathas and the English made an alliance against Hyder. But Hyder was brave
and diplomatic. He beat the English at their own game by making peace with the
Marathas and alluring the Nizam with territorial gains and together with the latter
launched an attack on Arcot. The fight continued for a year and half and the
British suffered heavy losses. The panic-stricken British had to sue for peace.
A treaty was signed on April 4, 1769, on the basis of restitution of each
other's territories. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1769–70 there was
‘Great famine in Bengal’ in which nearly 10 million people perished. Later
several other famines hit different parts of Indian killing millions of people
during East India companies rule. During the period 1772-1785 the territory of
the East India Company included Bengal. Bihar, Orissa, Banaras and Ghazipur. It
also included the Northern Sarkars, port of Salsette and the harbours of
Madras, Bombay and other minor ports. The Mughal territory included Delhi and
other surrounding areas. The territory of Avadh, which was autonomous, was
bound in an offensive-defensive alliance with the East India Company since
1765. The North Western part of India was under the Sikh clans, who controlled
region around the Sultej. The Muslim chiefs ruled in North western Punjab,
Multan, Sindh and Kashmir. The Marathas dominated over western India, parts of
Central India from Delhi to Hyderabad and Gujarat to Cuttak. The Deccan was
ruled by Nizamof Hyderabad. Hyder Ali ruled
over Mysore. Tanjore and Travancore were under the Hindu rulers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">British and
Marathas <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First Anglo Maratha war
(1775 –1782): Narayan Rao became the fifth Peshwa of the Marathas. Narayan Rao
killed by his uncle Raghunath Rao, who declared himself as the Peshwa. The
Maratha chieftains under the leadership of Nana Phadnis opposed him. Raghunath
Rao sought help from the English. The English agreed to help him and concluded
with him the Treaty of Surat on March 7, 1775. According to the treaty the
English were to provide 2,500 men and Raghunath was to cede Salsette and
Bassein to the English with part of the revenues from Broach and Surat
districts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Maratha army and chiefs
proclaimed Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa and on January 9 1779, the British
troops met a large Maratha army at Talegon and were defeated. This shattered
the prestige of the British so low that they had to enter into a humiliating
Treaty of Wadgaon. British had to surrender all the territories acquired by the
Company since 1773.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Warren Hastings, the
Governor-General, sent a strong force under Colonel Goddard who took possession
of Ahmedabad on February 15 and captured Bassein on December 11, 1780. Warren
Hastings sent another force against MahadajiSindhia. Captain Popham captured
Gwalior on August 3 1780 and on February 16, 1781, General Camac defeated
Sindhia at Sipri. These victories increased the prestige of the English, who
gained Sindhia as an ally to conclude the the Treaty of Salbai on 17 May 1782.
As per this treaty Company recognisedMadhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa and
returned to the Sindhia all his territories west of Yamuna. The treaty of
Salbai assured mutual restitution of each other's territories and guaranteed
peace for twenty years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second Mysore war<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1780 when the
English wanted to attack the French at Mahe, situated on the west coast of
Mysore, Hyder Ali did not permit it. Therefore the English declared war against
Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali arranged a joint front with the Nizam and the Marathas. In
July 1780, Hyder Ali with 80,000 men and 100 guns attacked Carnatic. In October
1780 he captured Arcot, defeating an English army under Colonel Braille.
Meanwhile British managed to break the alliance between the Raja of Berar,
MahadjiSindhia, Nizam and Hyder Ali.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hyder Ali continued the
war with the British. But in November 1781, Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali
at Porto Nova. In January 1782, English captured Trincomali. In 1782, Hyder Ali
inflicted a humiliating defeat on the British troops under Colonel Braithwaite.
On December 7, 1782, Hyder Ali died. His son Tipu Sultan bravely fought against
Britishers. Tipu captured brigadier Mathews, in 1783. Then in November 1783,
Colonel Fullarton captured Coimbatore. Tired of the war, the two sides
concluded the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. According to the treaty, both the parties
decided to restore each other's conquered territories and free all the
prisoners.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pitt's India Act - 1784
- British Parliament under Pitt’s India Bill of 1784 appointed a Board of
Control. It provided for a joint government of the Company (represented by the
Directors), and the Crown (represented by the Board of Control). In 1786,
trough a supplementary bill, Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the first
Governor-General, and he became the effective ruler of British India under the
authority of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Third Mysore War - The
immediate cause of the war was Tipu's attack on Travancore on December 29, 1789
over aq dispute over Cochin. The Raja of Travancore was entitled to the
protection of the English. Thus taking advantage of the situation, the English,
making a triple alliance with the Nizams and the Marathas, attacked Tipu
Sultan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The war between Tipu
and the alliance lasted for nearly two years. British under Major-General
Medows, could not win against Tipu. On January 29, 1791, Cornwallis himself
took over the command of the British troops. He captured Bangalore in 1791 and
approached Seringapatnam, Tipu's capital. Tipu displayed great skill in
defending and his tactics forced Cornwallis to retreat. Tipu captured Coimbatore on November 3. Lord
Cornwallis soon returned and occupied all the forts in his path to
Seringapatnam. On February 5, 1792 Cornwallis arrived at Serinapatnam. Tipu had
to sue for peace and the Treaty of Seringapatnam concluded in March 1792. The
treaty resulted in the surrender of nearly half of the Mysorean territory to
the victorious allies. Tipu also had to pay a huge war indemnity of and his two
sons were taken as hostages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fourth Mysore war -
Lord Wellesley became the governor general of India in 1798. Tipu Sultan tried to secure an alliance with
the French against the English in India. Wellesley questioned Tipu’s
relationship with the French and attacked Mysore in 1799. The fourth
Anglo-Mysore War was of short duration and decisive and ended with Tipu’s death
on May 4, 1799 who was killed fighting
to save his capital.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second Anglo-Maratha
war, 1803: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After death of Nana
Phadnavis in 1800, there was infighting between Holkar and Sindhia chiefs. The
new PeshwaBaji Rao murdered VithujiHolkar, brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar in
April 1801. Holkar defeated the combined armies of Sindhias and the Peshwas at
Poona and captured the city. The new PeshwaBaji Rao II, was weak and sought the protection of British
through treaty of Bassein in 1802. Baji Rao II was restored to Peshwarship
under the protection of the East India Company. However, the treaty was not
acceptable to both the Marathas chieftains - the Shindia and Bhosales. This
directly resulted in the Second Anglo-Maratha war in 1803.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sindhia and Bhosale
tried to win over Holkar but he did not join them and retired to Malwa and
Gaekwad chose to remain neutral. Even at this point of time, the Marathas
chiefs were not able to unify themselves and thus the challenge to the
authority of the Company brought disasters for both the Sindhias and Bhosales.
The war began in August 1803. British under General Wellesley (brother of Lord Wellesley) defeated Bhosales
at Argain on November 29 and the British captured the strong fortress of
Gawilgrah on December 15, 1803. In the north, General Lake captured Delhi and
Agra. The army of Sindhia was completely destroyed at the battle of Delhi in
September and at Laswari in Alwar State in November. The British further won in
Gujarat, Budelkhand and Orissa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By the Treaty of
Deogaon signed on December 17, 1803, the Bhosale surrendered to the Company the
province of Cuttack and the entire region in the west of the rivers Wards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Similarly, the Sindhia
signed the Treaty of Surji-Arjanaon on December 30, 1803 and ceded to the
Company all their territories between the Ganga and the Yamuna. British forces
were stationed in the territories of the Sindhia and Bhosale. With these
victories Britishers became the dominant power in India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1804 Holkar army
successfully defeated British army in Kota and forced them out from Agra.
British somehow managed to defend Delhi. However in November 1804 British army
managed to defeat a contingent of Holkar army but Holkar again defeated British
in Bharatpur in 1805. Ultimately Treaty of Rajpurghat" was signed on
December 25, 1805 between Holkar and British.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Third Marataha War
(1817-1818): Marathas were ultimately
defeated and Maratha power destroyed by British in several wars during 1817-
1818. Holkar's forces were routed at Mahidpur December 21, 1817 and Baji Rao
II, who was trying to consolidate Marathas, finally surrendered in June 1818.
British abolished the position of Peshwa and Marathas were limited to the small
kingdom of Satara. Thus ended the mighty Maratha power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Between 1814 to 1826
British had to fight many wars against Gurkhas in the North and Burmese in the
North East. After several losses and some gains British signed peace treaties
with Gurkhas of Nepal and Burmese. During the period of 1817-1818 British had
to fight against non-traditional armies of Pindaris, who used to plunder
British territory. British finally managed to crush Pindaris.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During this period in
the North West region of Punjab the Sikh power was growing and Maharaja Ranjit
Singh (1780-1839) of Punjab became very powerful. British already had their
hands full with problems in different part of India. They were afraid of Ranjit
Singh’s power. So in 1838 they made a peace treaty with Ranjit Singh. During
the same year there was a big famine in north-west India that killed nearly a
million people. But after Ranjit Singh’s death there was infighting amongst
Sikhs. British tried to take advantage of this and First Anglo - Sikh war
started in 1845. Battle of Mudki and Ferozshah (1845) saw heavy fighting
between British and Sikhs. Sikhs were defeated due to the treachery of their
generals. The final battle of Sobraon on February 10, 1846 proved decisive
where Sikhs again lost due to the betrayal of their generals. The British were
able to capture most of India after defeating Sikhs in 1849 in Second Anglo -
Sikh War.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The year 1853 stands
out to be a landmark year in modern Indian history as the first Railway opened
from Bombay to Thane and first Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was
started. This was one of the first major positive contributions that British
made in India. Although the initial purpose of these was to improve the
mobility and communication of the British troops but much later they became
very useful for common people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Before 1857 there was
nothing much about East India Company except some laws and the take over of the
Indian lands. Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757, and Bengal lost. Then in
1764 company won the Battle of Buxar, Bihar. Orissa also got lost. Company got
Gangetic plains under them. They then moved towards south to Bombay and
Chennai. Anglo-Mysore wars, Anglo-Maratha war both were lost in 1799 and 1818
respectively, giving control to the company of the southern India. They then
took over the lands of Punjab, Delhi, Sindh, Kashmir, North West Frontier
Province. They took all the major cities of India under their control and most
of India by 1857 and then handed over to the Queen of England to rule over. So
the role of the East India Company was to gain control over the India's land
and pass over the control.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1773, Company made
Kolkata, then Calcutta its capital. Opium trading was the major trade of the
Company. New Revenue laws, zamidari system was introduced. They created courts,
canal, railways, post offices and telegraph offices. Their major contribution
was the English education schools. Economy was quite good till then. After the
rule hand over condition got bad to worse.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">History
of Indian writing in English<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">English language public
instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the East India
Company (India was then, and is today, one of the most linguistically diverse
regions of the world. In 1835, English replaced Persian as the official
language of the Company. Lord Macaulay played a major role in introducing
English and western concepts to education in India. He supported the
replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English
as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of
English-speaking Indians as teachers. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, primary-,
middle-, and high-schools were opened in many districts of British India, with
most high schools offering English language instruction in some subjects. In
1857, just before the end of Company rule, universities modelled on the University
of London and using English as the medium of instruction were established in
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. During subsequent Crown Rule in India, or the
British Raj, lasting from 1858 to 1947, English language penetration increased
throughout India. This was driven in part by the gradually increasing hiring of
Indians in the civil services. At the time of India's independence in 1947,
English was the only functional lingua franca in the country.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After Indian
Independence in 1947, Hindi was declared the first official language, and
attempts were made to declare Hindi the sole national language of India. Due to
protests from Tamil Nadu and other non-Hindi-speaking states, it was decided to
temporarily retain English for official purposes until at least 1965. By the
end of this period, however, opposition from non-Hindi states was still too
strong to have Hindi declared the sole language. With this in mind, the English
Language Amendment Bill declared English to be an associate language
"until such time as all non-Hindi States had agreed to its being
dropped." This hasn't yet occurred, and it is still widely used. For
instance, it is the only reliable means of day-to-day communication between the
central government and the non-Hindi states. The view of the English language
among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating
it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of
India. While there is an assumption that English is readily available in India,
available studies show that its usage is actually restricted to an elite,
because of inadequate education to large parts of the Indian population. The
use of outdated teaching methods and the poor grasp of English exhibited by the
authors of many guidebooks, disadvantage students who rely on these books.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Indian English
Literature has a relatively recent history, being only one and a half centuries
old. The first book written by an Indian in English was Travels of Dean
Mahomet, a travel narrative by Sake Dean Mahomet published in England in 1793.
In its early stages, IEL was influenced by the Western novel. Early Indian
writers used English unadulterated by Indian words to convey an experience
which was essentially Indian. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838–1894) wrote
Rajmohan's Wife and published it in 1864; it is the first Indian novel written
in English. Raja Rao (1908–2006), Indian philosopher and writer, authored
Kanthapura and The Serpent and the Rope, which are Indian in terms of their
storytelling qualities. Kisari Mohan Ganguli translated the Mahabharata into
English, the only time the epic has ever been translated in its entirety into a
European language. Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) wrote in Bengali and English
and was responsible for the translations of his own work into English. Dhan
Gopal Mukerji (1890–1936) was the first Indian author to win a literary award
in the United States. Nirad C. Chaudhuri (1897–1999), a writer of non-fiction,
is best known for his The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (1951), in which
he relates his life experiences and influences. P. Lal (1929–2010), a poet,
translator, publisher and essayist, founded a press in the 1950s for Indian
English writing, Writers Workshop. Ram NathKak (1917–1993), a Kashmiri
veterinarian, wrote his autobiography Autumn Leaves, which is one of the most
vivid portraits of life in 20th century Kashmir and has become a sort of a
classic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Among the later
writers, the most notable is Salman Rushdie, born in India, now living in the
USA. Rushdie with his famous work Midnight's Children (Booker Prize 1981,
Booker of Bookers 1992, and Best of the Bookers 2008) ushered in a new trend of
writing. He used a hybrid language – English generously peppered with Indian
terms – to convey a theme that could be seen as representing the vast canvas of
India. He is usually categorised under the magic realism mode of writing most
famously associated with Gabriel GarcíaMárquez. Nayantara Sehgal was one of the
first female Indian writers in English to receive wide recognition. Her fiction
deals with India's elite responding to the crises engendered by political
change. She was awarded the 1986 SahityaAkademi Award for English, for her
novel, Rich Like Us (1985), by the SahityaAkademi, India's National Academy of
Letters. Anita Desai, who was shortlisted for the Booker Prize three times,
received a SahityaAkademi Award in 1978 for her novel Fire on the Mountain and
a British Guardian Prize for The Village by the Sea. Her daughter Kiran Desai
won the 2006 Man Booker Prize for her second novel, The Inheritance of Loss.
Ruskin Bond received SahityaAkademy Award for his collection of short stories
Our Trees Still Grow in Dehra in 1992. He is also the author of a historical
novel A Flight of Pigeons, which is based on an episode during the Indian
Rebellion of 1857.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Salman Rushdie<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vikram Seth, author of
The Golden Gate (1986) and A Suitable Boy (1994) is a writer who uses a purer
English and more realistic themes. Being a self-confessed fan of Jane Austen,
his attention is on the story, its details and its twists and turns.Vikram Seth
is notable both as an accomplished novelist and poet. Vikram Seth's outstanding
achievement as a versatile and prolific poet remains largely and unfairly
neglected.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Another writer who has
contributed immensely to the India English Literature is Amitav Ghosh who is
the author of The Circle of Reason (his 1986 debut novel), The Shadow Lines
(1988), The Calcutta Chromosome (1995), The Glass Palace (2000), The Hungry
Tide (2004), and Sea of Poppies (2008), the first volume of The Ibis trilogy,
set in the 1830s, just before the Opium War, which encapsulates the colonial
history of the East. Ghosh's latest work of fiction is River of Smoke (2011),
the second volume of The Ibis trilogy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rohinton Mistry is an
India born Canadian author who is a Neustadt International Prize for Literature
laureate (2012). His first book Tales from FirozshaBaag (1987) published by
Penguin Books Canada is a collection of 11 short stories. His novels Such a
Long Journey (1991) and A Fine Balance (1995)earned him great acclaim.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shashi Tharoor, in his
The Great Indian Novel (1989), follows a story-telling (though in a satirical)
mode as in the Mahabharata drawing his ideas by going back and forth in time.
His work as UN official living outside India has given him a vantage point that
helps construct an objective Indianness. Vikram Chandra is another author who
shuffles between India and the United States and has received critical acclaim
for his first novel Red Earth and Pouring Rain (1995) and collection of short
stories Love and Longing in Bombay (1997). His namesake Vikram A. Chandra is a
renowned journalist and the author of The Srinagar Conspiracy (2000). Suketu
Mehta is another writer currently based in the United States who authored
Maximum City (2004), an autobiographical account of his experiences in the city
of Mumbai. In 2008, Arvind Adiga received the Man Booker Prize for his debut
novel The White Tiger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Recent writers in India
such as Arundhati Roy and David Davidar show a direction towards contextuality
and rootedness in their works. Arundhati Roy, a trained architect and the 1997
Booker prize winner for her The God of Small Things, calls herself a "home
grown" writer. Her award winning book is set in the immensely physical
landscape of Kerala. Davidar sets his The House of Blue Mangoes in Southern
Tamil Nadu. In both the books, geography and politics are integral to the
narrative. In his novel Lament of Mohini (2000), Shreekumar Varma touches upon
the unique matriarchal system and the sammandham system of marriage as he
writes about the Namboodiris and the aristocrats of Kerala. Similarly, Arnab
Jan Deka, a trained engineer and jurist, writes about both physical and
ethereal existentialism on the banks of the mighty river Brahmaputra, and his
co-authored book of poetry with British poet-novelist Tess Joyce appropriately
titled A Stanza of Sunlight on the Banks of Brahmaputra(1983) published from
both India and Britain(2009) which is set under this backdrop evokes the spirit
of flowing nature of life. His most recent book Brahmaputra and Beyond :
Linking Assam to the World(2015) made a conscious effort to connect to a world
divided by racial, geographic, linguistic, cultural and political prejudices.
His highly acclaimed short story collection The Mexican Sweetheart & other
stories(2002) was another landmark book of this genre. JahnaviBarua, a
Bangalore based author from Assam has set her critically acclaimed collection
of short stories Next Door on the social scenario in Assam with insurgency as
the background.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The stories and novels
of RatanLalBasu reflect the conditions of tribal people and hill people of West
Bengal and the adjacent states of Sikkim, Bhutan and Nepal. Many of his short
stories reflect the political turmoil of West Bengal since the Naxalite
movement of the 1970s. Many of his stories like ‘Blue Are the Far Off
Mountains’, ‘The First Rain’ and ‘the Magic Marble’ glorify purity of love. His
novel ‘Oraon and the Divine Tree’ is the story of a tribal and his love for an
age old tree. In Hemingway style language the author takes the reader into the
dreamland of nature and people who are inexorably associated with nature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">R. K. Narayan
(1906–2001) contributed over many decades and continued to write till his
death. He was discovered by Graham Greene in the sense that the latter helped
him find a publisher in England. Greene and Narayan remained close friends till
the end. Similar to the way Thomas Hardy used Wessex, Narayan created the
fictitious town of Malgudi where he set his novels. Some criticise Narayan for
the parochial, detached and closed world that he created in the face of the
changing conditions in India at the times in which the stories are set. Others,
such as Greene, however, feel that through Malgudi they could vividly
understand the Indian experience. Narayan's evocation of small town life and
its experiences through the eyes of the endearing child protagonist Swaminathan
in Swami and Friends is a good sample of his writing style. Simultaneous with Narayan's
pastoral idylls, a very different writer, Mulk Raj Anand (1905–2004), was
similarly gaining recognition for his writing set in rural India, but his
stories were harsher, and engaged, sometimes brutally, with divisions of caste,
class and religion. According to writer Lakshmi Holmström, "The writers of
the 1930s were fortunate because after many years of use, English had become an
Indian language used widely and at different levels of society, and therefore
they could experiment more boldly and from a more secure position." Kamala
Markandeya is an early writer in IEL who has often grouped with the trinity of
R.K. Narayan, Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao. The contributions of Manoj Das and
Manohar Malgoankar to growth of IEL largely remains unacknowledged.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nativisation
of English<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By nativizing the
English language, Indian English novelists have created their own language to
affirm their own distinct identity. The term nativization of a language can be
defined as re-defining the language in one's own linguistic and cultural
framework. It is a process of accumulation of new words and meanings to suit
the social and cultural requirements. It is a known fact that language change
over time and place. English used in environments different from its origin,
would adjust and change to suit its new environment. The growth of English in
India in all possible genres acknowledges the fact that it has changed and
adjusted to suit its Indian environment. Nativization expanded the language,
moulded and refashioned it so much so that after all this time it has its own
identity and place in the linguistic world. It's very interesting to note that
this new variety of English that has passed through the phases of imitation,
adaptation and innovation is not only confined to and being used by Indians, it
has also entered the lexicon of the so-called native speakers. Indians
contributed to the evolution and expansion of this malleable and user-friendly
language. The transplantation of English in the fertile soil of India yielded fruits
of fresh flavor and taste. The Indian rich soil lent to the language what it
had in it as a result of witnessing passage of an ancient civilization and its
exploits since the pre-historic times. English mingled with other Indian
languages and resulted in a new and distinct variety. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nativisation of English
in India has remained to be a much discussed topic even after, several years of
independence. Many critics and writers have expressed their views on the
nativisation process in India which has resulted into a new variety of
English—distinct in form and content. It has certainly helped in asserting
Indian identity in world literature. English language has been redefined by the
Indian English writers and used in typical Indian socio-cultural context. The
term nativisation has been described variously as acculturization (Stanlaw
1982) Indigenization (Richards 1982) or hybridization of a language in a non
native socio cultural context. The term is used to describe the divergence of
varieties of language from a parent source (Kachru 1982). In the context of
English, the term nativisation refers to the changes which English has
undergone as a result of its contact with languages in diverse cultural and
geographical setting in the peripheral circle of English. The process of
nativisation in English is responsible for deviations in the new varieties of
English raising various types of linguistic and sociolinguistic issues.
Nativization can be defined as a process whereby a language gains native
speakers' This happens necessarily where a second language used by adult
parents becomes the native language of their children. Nativisation has been of
particular interest to linguists. The process of nativisation is due to the
transfer from local language as well as to the new cultural environment and
communicative needs (Saghal 1991: 300). Because of deep social penetration and
the extended range of functions of English in diverse sociolinguistic contexts
there are several varieties, localized registers and genres for articulating
local social, cultural and religious identities (Kachru 1997:69). Also, factors
such as the absence of a native group, inadequate teaching and acquisitional
limitations (e.g. lack of exposure and facilities, learning under compulsion)
contribute to the process of nativisation. (Saghal 1991:300). Scholars (such as
Kachru, Halverson, Verma, Mehrotra and Sridhar) have all concluded that the
Indian varieties of English are being nativised by acquiring new identities in
new socio-cultural contexts. They have emerged as autonomous local varieties
with their own set of rules that make it impossible to treat them simply as
mistakes of deficient Englishes (Kandiah 1991: 275). Indian English (IE) has
developed to a more distinctive level than in other countries where English is
used as a second language (Crystal 1988: 258). English in India has evolved
characteristic features at the phonological, lexical, syntactic and even at
discourse level. Initially, these innovations were rejected by purists, but
they are becoming increasingly accepted: English is not anymore treated as a
foreign language; it is part of the cultural identity of India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction
of English studies in India (Macaulay’s Speech)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Western education was
spreading fast in different parts of Indian and was doing much better than the
institutions imparting oriental education. The Orientalists and the Anglicists
continued to wrangle but it was quite evident that the former were steadily
losing ground, till finally, Macaulay's celebrated Minute settled the issue. He
declared that it was both necessary and possible "to make the natives of
his country good English scholars". On 7th March, 1885, Lord William
Bentinck resolved, "the great object of the British Government ought to be
the promotion of European Literature and science among the natives of
India".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Macaulay's Minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By the turn of the
century, the imperialists believed in giving English education to the Indians.
There was a pressing need for Indian clerks, translators and lower officials in
administration and knowledge of English was essential for these jobs. Before
the close of the eighteenth century, missionaries came to Indian for spreading
the "word of Christ" among the native Indians. A large number of
missionary schools imparting English education were set up by the early 1800's.
The Orientalists opposed the project of importing English education in India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lord Macaulay who is
called the Father of English education, asserted in the House of Commons a year
before he sailed to India; "To trade with civilized men is infinitely more
profitable than to govern savages". The civilized subject of Macaulay's
imagination was not the slave who performed his salaams to the British officer,
but "the English educated gentleman using English tapestry and English
cutlery, the man who valued English manufactures and spoke the English
language". In 1835, as a law officer to the Supreme Council, he drafted a
document which came to be known as "Macaulay's Minute on Education".
The process of producing English-knowing bilinguals in India began with the
Minute of 1835, which officially endorsed T.B. Macaulay's goal of forming
"a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we
govern—a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste,
in opinion, in morals and in intellect".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">According to Kachru,
the far reaching Minute was highly controversial because of disagreement about
whether it was correct to impose an alien language on Indians or not. The
Orientalists expressed their disagreement in a note dated 15 February 1835, but
they could not stop it from passing and had to give way. On 7 March 1835, the
Minute received a Seal of Approval from Lord William Bentinck, and an official
resolution on Macaulay's Minute was passed. This resolution "formed the
cornerstone of the implementation of a language policy" in India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Indian
Diasporic writers<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writers of Indian
Diaspora are at the centre stage since last decade because of their capturing
works. Indian Diaspora occupies second largest place in the world. The
population of Diaspora is approximately 25 million, who settled whole notable
regions of the world. Indian immigrants in the overseas are for various reasons
like free trade, better standards of life and earning. Diasporic or immigrant
writing occupies a great place of significance between cultures and countries.
Writings Diaspora benefits many ways and a powerful web connects the entire
globe. The foremost characteristic features of diaspora writings involve the
quest for identity, nostalgia, familial and marital relationships apart from
re-rooting, uprooting, multi-cultural milieu etc. Bharati Mukherjee is an Indo
American writer and professor at the University of California, Berkeley. She
wrote numerous works that cover both fiction and non-fiction. Mukherjee has
gone to the extent of contemplating herself as an American writer and not a
migrant writer. Her works include novels, short story collections, and one
memoir non-fiction. She has won National Book Critics Circle Award in 1988 for
‘The Middle and other stories’. Her other works are ‘Jasmine and Wife’. The
Middle Man and other stories present the theme of immigration while Jasmine is
the story of woman who is reluctant to accept the outdated traditional society.
The collection of stories Darkness (1985) focusses the immigrant experience in
the USA. In the novel Dimple Das Gupta who dreams to marry a neuro surgeon, had
to marry according to the wish of her father and she couldn’t adapt herself to
the real life situations. Shauna Singh Baldwin is the Indo-Canadian Diasporic
writer. She is the author of two short story collections ‘we are not in
Pakistan’ and ‘English Lessons and other stories’. Her stories in the short
story collections have been published in various literary magazines. The
setting of the novel What the Body reminds the partition theme and revolves
mainly around three characters Roop, second wife of Sardarji, infertile first
wife and Sardarji whoalways struggle for his identity. This book bagged
Commonwealth Writers Prize for the best book from the region of Caribbean and
also long listed for the Orange Prize in fiction. JhumpaLahiri was born to
Indian parents from London, who settled in the USA after her birth. Lahiri’s
debut collection of short stories ‘Interpreter of Maladies’ (1999) brought
laurels to her by clenching Pulitzer Prize for fiction. In her first novel ‘The
Namesake’ and her short story collections, she is successful in presenting
discontentment at the core in the families she portrays. Her ‘Low Land’ is the
story of blood relationship that was brutally spoiled by politics, which got
shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. AnjanaAppachana is a novelist of Indian
origin who lives in the United States. She has written a book of short stories
titled ‘Incantations’ and a novel titled Listening Now is a novelist of Indian
origin who lives in the United States. Her debut work ‘Incantations and Other
Stories’ was first published in England, in United States and was translated
into German language. AnjanaAppachana is the recipient of O.Henry Festival
Prize and National Endowment for the Arts Creative Writing fellowship. Her
first novel ‘Listening Now’ based on the themes of female bonding, female
sexuality and mother-child relations relationships spans three generations in a
narrative that is not sequential, elliptical. The novel is written in English,
but we find nativity in the rhythms of the language and the metaphors Anita
Nair is an English Language writer of India. Nair, who hailed from a small
village of Kerala was educated in Chennai. Her ‘Satyr of the Subway’, a
collection of short stories won her a fellowship from Virginia. Nair’s novels
The Better Man and Ladies Coupe were translated into 21 collections. Her
‘Ladies coupe’ is about a middle aged Indian unmarried woman on her journey of
selfdiscovery. The theme of the story is based on a one way train journey which
transforms the life and changes the protagonist into a new woman. Chitra
Banerjee Divakaruni is poet, essayist, author, fiction and short story writer,
book reviewer. She is an Indo American poet. Her short story collection
Arranged Marriage and other Stories brought her the credit of winning the
American Book Award in 1995. Her works are largely set in the United States as
well as in India. Her focus sometimes is on the experiences of South Asian
migrants. ManjulaPadmanabhan is a playwright, journalist, comic strip artist,
an artist, illustrator and cartoonist. She was born in India and grew up in
Sweden, Pakistan and Trinidad. Her play Harvest was selected for the Onassis
Prize in 1997 out of 1470 and bagged the prize. Marginalization and separation
are the themes of her writings. Her semi-autobiographical work ‘Getting There’
depicts the plight of young woman illustrator in Bombay. Anita Rao Badami is a
writer of South Asia who settled in Canada. Her novels handle with intricacies
of Indian family life, cultural gap that is encountered by the immigrants who
settle in the west. The Hero’s Walk was placed on the top five finalists for
CBC Canada Reads Competition. The book, ‘The Hero’s Walk’ describes the
problems in the family life and at last how peace evolved in the family.
V.S.Naipaul a Nobel Laureate belongs to Trinidad born in a Hindu Brahmin
family. Writer of Indian descent, popular for pessimistic themes. In the novel
‘Area of Darkness’ he focusses on the post-Independence problems like poverty,
caste system, neglected areas ofsanitation and segregation by society. In ‘A
House for Mr Biswas’, Naipaul presents the sorry state of protagonist having
house on his own. ‘The Mimic Men’ criticises the newly liberated countries and
individual’s sense of identity. Kamala Markandeya born in Mysore belongs to a
Hindu family. She is not only a writer but journalist and activist too. Her
marriage to English man, made her settle in London. During intervals, she used
to make visits to India. Her ten novels are ‘A Silence of Desire’, ‘The Nowhere
Man’, ‘The Coffer Dams’, ‘A Handful of Rice’, ‘Possession’, ‘Two Virgins’, ‘The
Pleasure city/Shalimar in the American Edition’ and ‘The Golden Honey Comb’.
Her novel ‘Nectar in a Sieve’ is translated into more than dozen languages with
the theme, the pathetic plight of a poor peasant. Markandeya is ahead of twenty
years in predicting the diasporic experiences in her work ‘The Nowhere Man’.
Anita Desai is an Indian writer and professor of Humanities at Massachusetts.
Her name was shortlisted for the Booker Prize three times. Desai’s novel, ‘Fire
on the Mountain’ won Sahitya Academy Award in the year 1978. Her works mainly
focus on family in particular, matters about women. Clear light of the day
presents the importance of family life. In the work Custody, she describes the
problem of alienation of college teacher from his deep rooted culture. Anita is
expert in handling literary technique, the stream of consciousness in the novel
Cry the peacock. In another novel ‘Bye Bye Black Bird’, she deals with the
problem of adaptability; the theme of the story revolves around the three
characters Adit, Dev. and Sarah. Salman Rushdie was born in India and studied
at Cambridge in England. He is popularly known for his controversial works. His
‘Satanic Verses’ was published amid controversy and violence. It has been
banned in various countries. Death sentence was proclaimed against him by the
then President of Pakistan. His themes are innovative and about migration and
spiritual alienation. MeeraSayal was born and brought up in an immigrant
Punjabi family in England. MeeraSayal MBE is a British Indian comedian, writer,
playwright, singer, journalist and actress. Her Punjabi-born parents came to
Britain from New Delhi and she has risen to prominence as one of the most UK's
best-known Indian personalities. She was awarded the MBE in the New Year's
Honours List of 1997. In ‘The House of Hidden Mothers’, MeeraSayal, as an
accomplished novelist, takes on the timely but under explored issue of India's
booming surrogacy industry. Western couple pays a young woman to have their
child and then fly home with a baby, an easy narrative that ignores the complex
emotions involved in carrying a child. Shyama, a forty-eight-year-old London
divorcée, already has an unruly teenage daughter, but that doesn't stop her and
her younger lover, Toby, from begetting a child together. Their relationship
may look like a cliché. But despite the news from her doctor that she no longer
has any viable eggs, Shyama's unfair pair is not ready to give up their dream
of having a baby. So they decide to find an Indian surrogate to carry their
child, which is how they meet Mala, a young woman trapped in an oppressive
marriage in a small Indian town from which she's desperate to escape. But as
the pregnancy progresses, they discover that their simple arrangement may be
far more complicated than it seemed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meena Alexander is an internationally
acclaimed poet, writer and scholar. Born in Allahabad, India and brought up in
India and Sudan. At present she lives in New York City. She is the author of
numerous collections of poetry, essays, and works of fiction, literary memoirs
and literary criticism. Her novel ‘Nampally Road’ published in the year 1999 is
haunting and lyrical. The novel Nampally Road brightly portrays contemporary
India a woman’s struggle to cut together her past. In the middle of the novel
she becomes the victim of the gang rape by the police. The people in that place
rise up and burn the police station. The incidents in the novel resemble the
recent tragic events in Delhi. Amit Chaudari belongs to a new group of writers
whose roots trace back to the post emergency period in India. Setting in his
works is in India and in England. His themes are not revolutionary and
turbulent but deals with city life servants, Indian culture and family life.
Themes are close to diasporic experiences. His major works are ‘A Strange and sublime
Address’ (1991), ‘Afternoon Raag’ (1993) ‘Freedom Song’ (1998), ‘A New World
and Real Time’ (2002) Vikram Seth became world famous through his novel ‘A
Suitable Boy’. Setting of the novel is in a late post-independent India. The
theme of the story is social and financial issues; a Hindu Mother who searches
a suitable son in law for her daughter. It highlights the issues like land
rights, inter religious marriages and identity crisis in sections. This novel
is frequently compared to Leo Tolstoy’s ‘War and Peace’ by critics and
reviewers. Kiran Desai is an Indian author. Her novel ‘The Inheritance of Loss’
won the 2006 Man Booker Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Fiction
Award, is one of the most highly praised Indian writers of second generation.
She grew up in India, the U.K. and the U.S.A. where she has settled down. Her
debut novel, ‘Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard’ published has praised so much
for its subtle portrayal of India. ‘The Inheritance of loss’ eclipsed the first
novel. This book won the Man Booker Prize in the year 2006 and received The
National Book Critics Circle Fiction Award in the year 2007. Themes include
post-colonialism and globalization as they relate to a modern India. It is
considered a master piece of Indian literature in 21st century. This
extraordinary novel, long listed for the Man Booker prize and produces a
strange effect. It is a lengthy novel that stretches from India to New York; an
ambitious novel that reaches into the lives of the middle class and the very poor;
an exuberantly written novel that blends colloquial and more literary styles;
and yet it communicates nothing so much as how impossible it is to live a big,
ambitious, exuberant life. Everything about it dramatizes the fact that
although we live in this mixed-up, messy, globalised world, for many people the
dominant response is fear of change, based on a deep desire for security.
Sunetra Gupta Bengali born settled in London, who spent her childhood in
Ethiopia, Zambia and Liberia. Her debut novel ‘Memories of Rain’ published in
1992 won her Sahitya Academy Award in 1996. Her works mainly present stream of
consciousness style entering on the interior monologues of the characters. Her
writings reflect cultures, histories and human understanding and considerations.
Her fiction moves the central preoccupation of diasporic writings from the
crisis of uniqueness to the mapping of a process of experience and feeling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In ‘Memories of Rain’,
plot from beginning to the end is concentrated within the span of a single day.
On that day, Moni, an Indian woman who had come to England after having married
the English Anthony, decides to leave her untrustworthy husband and returns to
India with her daughter. The association between Moni and Anthony presents
regular paraphernalia of cross-cultural differences and racism, with the
responsibility of ‘originality’ reversed and applied implicitly to cold
England. However, writing is not something that we encounter everyday: almost
no period as the prose seems to mimic the rain, sometimes it’s a downpour like
when Anthony and Moni meet and fall in love. Sometimes, it is light like when
Moni is feeding the doves in England and putting water in the bird bath and she
remembers her grandmother’s words. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CONCLUSION <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The list of Diaspora
writers is very lengthy and elaborative. The roots of Diaspora spreading from
time to time had been representing their home land culture and their nostalgia
through their works. The readers of such literature sporadically experience
different and relatively unpalatable trends of life in alien lands. At times,
they even identify themselves with protagonists and other influential
characters in the works. The fundamental element and innate soul in ordinary
Indian families under no circumstances are eclipsed by almost all writers. The
indissoluble attachment to one’s ground and roots is the common under current
in all works<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
II: PROSE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"The World Community" -
Dr.S.Radhakrishnan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“The World Community” by Dr.S.Radhakrishnan is a plea to the
great powers of the world to unite under a single umbrella, namely, a world
federal government. To achieve this, he enumerates on the dangers posed by
nuclear weapons and wars. According to him, world peace is not a dream in a
shrinking world. It is a necessity, an essential condition for the survival of
the human race. For this, a world federal government is the way out; with
powers limited to establishing and maintaining law and order among the nations
of the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wars – An Illegitimate Instrument of Politics:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In World War I, of the ten million people who were killed,
95 per cent were soldiers and five per cent were civilians. In World War II, of
the fifty million people who were killed, 52 per cent were soldiers and 48 per
cent were civilians. In the Korean War, of the nine million killed, 84 per cent
were civilians and 16 per cent soldiers. Thus, war has degenerated into mass
murder of the defenceless, women and children. It has become an illegitimate
instrument of politics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dangers Posed by Nuclear Weapons:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nuclear developments have given enough power to the great
countries to annihilate the human race many times over. Politicians have become
indifferent to this growing danger. The apathy and indifference among the
masses have resulted in a creeping paralysis of the people. The building of
nuclear armaments means, the destruction of cities, the ruin of countries, the
suffering of millions of human beings and the demoralisation of the world.
There is no protection from nuclear weapons through shelters or emergency
regulations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alternatives for the Military Methods:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In a world, where peace is becoming more and more
precarious, the great powers have a special responsibility. William James in a
famous essay on “The Moral Equivalent of War” proposed a ‘substitute for war’s
disciplinary functions’. It is necessary that we devise alternatives for the
military methods. Issues which were hitherto decided through wars should
hereafter be decided by peaceful means. In political life, we cannot exclude
conflicts altogether.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">These have to be settled by a world organisation, an
international authority. Kant, in his essay on “Perpetual Peace”, suggested a
group of states’. Observing minimal rights of civilised behaviour. He proposed
a notion of world citizenship without the support of an overall sovereignty.
World control by a single authority is an illusion. A federal solution is the
way out, a world community which substitutes the processes of law for armed
conflicts. Dharma, in Indian thought means a gathering in, a binding together,
integration; adharma, its opposite, is a scattering out, a falling away,
disintegration. Thus, a world federal government capable of establishing and
maintaining law and order among the nations of the world is a practical way of
achieving just and lasting peace.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pre-requisites for a World Community:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">For a world authority to be effective, a world understanding
is necessary. We should work for a world community, for, the alternatives are
chaos or world tyranny. The Hammurabi code of the Babylonians, and the Egyptian
Book of the Dead contain suggestions of the Ten Commandments of the Israelites.
One of them reads, “Thou shalt not oppress the stranger for ye were once
strangers in Egypt”. Alexander looked upon the whole inhabited world as his fatherland.
All good men are of this world; the wicked are the aliens. Ashoka, Harsha, and
Akbar represent this view of life. By continually dwelling on the selfishness
of others, we ourselves become more selfish. Not by accusing others do we get
out of our selfishness, but by purifying ourselves.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jesus could not accept the primitive morality of an ‘eye for
an eye’. ‘Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. Return good for evil. Bless
those that curse you’, he said. Professor Max Mueller, who did a great deal for
the interpretation of Indian religion to the Western world said that the aim of
human existence was a world community. The real force working for world unity
is man’s inborn compassion for others. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
III: Poetry<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="Section2">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE TIGER AND THE DEER<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> SRI
AUROBINDO GHOSH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Brilliant, crouching, slouching,
what crept through the green heart of the forest,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span style="background: white;">Gleaming eyes and mighty chest and soft
soundless paws of grandeur and murder?</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">The wind slipped through the leaves as if afraid
lest its voice and the noise of its steps perturb the pitiless Splendour,</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">Hardly daring to breathe. But the great beast
crouched and crept, and crept and crouched a last time, noiseless, fatal,</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">Till suddenly death leaped on the beautiful wild
deer as it drank</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">Unsuspecting from the great pool in the forest's
coolness and shadow,</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">And it fell and, torn, died remembering its mate
left sole in the deep woodland, -</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">Destroyed, the mild harmless beauty by the
strong cruel beauty in Nature.</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">But a day may yet come when the tiger crouches
and leaps no more in the dangerous heart of the forest,</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">As the mammoth shakes no more the plains of
Asia;</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">Still then shall the beautiful wild deer drink
from the coolness of great pools in the leaves’ shadow.</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">The mighty perish in their might;</span><br />
<span style="background: white;">The slain survive the slayer.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SUMMER WOODS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> SAROJINI
NAIDU<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O I am tired of painted roofs and
soft and silken floors,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And long for wind-blown canopies of
crimson gulmohars!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O I am tired of strife and song and
festivals and fame,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And long to fly where cassia-woods
are breaking into flame.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Love, come with me where koels all
from flowering glade and glen,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Far from the toil and weariness, the
praise and prayers of men.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O let us fling all care away, and
lie alone and dream<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‘Neath tangled boughs of tamarind
and molsari and neem!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And bind our brows with jasmine
sprays and play on carven flutes,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To wake the slumbering serpent-kings
among the banyan roots.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And roam at fall of eventide along
the river’s brink,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And bathe in water-lily pools where
golden panthers drink!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">You and I together, Love, in the
deep blossoming woods<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Engirt with love-voiced silences and
gleaming solitudes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Companions of the lustrous dawn, gay
comrades of the night,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Like Krishna and like Radhika,
encompassed with delight.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">IN INDIA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nissim Ezekiel<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Always, in the sun’s eye,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Here among the beggars,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hawkers, pavement sleepers,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hutment dwellers,slums,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dead souls of men and gods,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Burnt-out mothers, frightened<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Virgins, wasted child<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And tortured animal,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All in noisy silence<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suffering the place and time,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I ride my elephant of thought,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A Cezanne slung around my neck.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Roman Catholic Goan boys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The whitewashed Anglo- Indian boys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The musclebound Islamic boys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Were earnest in their prayers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They copied , bullied, stole in
pairs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They bragged about their love
affairs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They carved the table broke the
chairs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But never missed their prayers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Roman Catholic Goan boys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Confessed their solitary joys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Confessed their games with high-
heeled toys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And hastened to the prayers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Anglo – Indian gentlemen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Drank whisky in some jewish den<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With Muslims slowly creeping in<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Before or after prayers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To celebrate the year’s end:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">men in grey or black,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">women,bosom semi-bare,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">twenty –three of us in all,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">six nations represented.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The wives of India sit apart.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They do not drink,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They do not talk,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">of course, they do not kiss.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The men are quite at home<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">among the foreign styles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(what fun the flirting is!)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I myself,decorously,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">press a thigh or two in sly
innocence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The party is a great success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Then someone says:we can’t<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">enjoy it, somehow, don’t you think?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The atmosphere corrupt,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">and look at our wooden wives….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I take him out to get some air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This, she said to herself<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As
she sat at table<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With the English boss,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Is IT. This is the promise:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The long evenings<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the large apartment<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Crab<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Arun Kolatkar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Look, look <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Just look at them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The crabs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are two of them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They’re keeping watch.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On whom, you ask?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On you of course,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">who else?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">See how they’re looking?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Looking at you,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">naturally.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And you’ll never catch them blink
either.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One on this side.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One on the other.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">At an angle of a hundred and sixty
degrees<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to your left and to your right.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They’re going to eat your eyes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">That scare you?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It needn’t, you know.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It’s not as if they’re going to
start eating right away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">No. But one of these days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tomorrow? Who knows?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">If not tomorrow, then the day after.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Or ten years from now, who can tell?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They’re in no hurry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They have plenty of time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And they can live without food<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">for a long time, you know.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Look this way,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">quick.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Don’t turn your head.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Just move your eyeballs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Do you see a crab there?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Not the whole crab, may be,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">not yet,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">but you did see something move?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now look the other way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">No, no. Not the whole head.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Just move your eyeballs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">like I said.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All you can see for now<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Is just the pincers may be,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But you’ll see,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">You’ll see the whole crab yet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And you’ll see it clearly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They’re only doing their job of
course,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">but patience<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">is one thing you should learn from
them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The crabs belong to you,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">and to you alone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They
have no interest in eating<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">somebody else’s eyes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They came out of your head.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Where else did you think they came
from?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But how they’ve grown.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Look at them now,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Big fat crabs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They’ve been playing a waiting game<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ever since they emerged<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">from your head.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They’ll come for your eyes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">any time you say.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sometimes I think they’re just
waiting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">for your permission.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All you have to do is give the word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And once they’ve eaten your eyes,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">their job is done.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">You’ll never see them again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">EVENING WHEAT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> VIKRAM
SETH<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Evening is the best time for wheat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Toads croak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Children ride buffaloes home for
supper.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The last loads are shoulder- borne.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Squares light up<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And the wheat sags with a late gold.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There on the other side of the
raised path<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Is the untransplanted emerald rice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But it is the wheat I watch, the
still dark gold<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With maybe a pig that has strayed
from the brigade<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #FEFDFA; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Enjoying a few soft ears.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">FIREFLIES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> MANOHARSHETTY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Outside they were flashing
streamers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But straying indoors like wavering
lanterns<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Into widening shadows thrown by
excited<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nets of caps and blazers, we caged
them<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In grass- crammed bottles, the tops<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Punctured for air, and watched them<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stare like luminous dials..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I had imagined burning crystals<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Or tips of emerald embers,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But found a softer substance-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Soon dimming- the insects, worried<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">By coarse hands, the walls of glass<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Baffling their tiny wings,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wilted to lifeless specks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I had felt nothing then.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Only a small pang for the loss<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Of a schoolboy’s ornament, But now,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Travelling my daily groove<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the hunt for food and habitat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I remember their trapped blank
lights.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">UNIT IV: DRAMA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dance
like a man<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-
Mahesh Dattani<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Critical Analysis of Mahesh
Dattani’s play 'Dance like a man'</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">INTRODUCTION :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Mahesh Dattani, an authentic
contemporary voice, a director, playwright, producer, was born on 7th August,
1958 in Bangalore where he later founded his theatre group 'Playpen’ in 1984
and where many of his settings are constructed; for example, <i>Bravely Fought
the Queen </i>is set in the „suburb of Bangalore and the Patels in <i>Tara </i>are
from Bangalore. He is an intellectually stimulating Sahitya Academy Winner .
Dattani‟s playscript casts its focus and locus entirely on the urban space,
specifically rooted in the dynamics of domestic space. Environmental
sustainability of the cities like Bangalore or Mumbai in his plays are the
symbolic tropes and modes of economic power that can be categorized as the
material element for discussing the issue of citizenship that “raise(s)
questions around notions of equality and rights, issues of individual, group
and community rights, active and passive citizenship and the relationship
between, and relative primacy of, rights and duties” (Mallick 131). There
is proper blending of Western intellectual consciousness and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Indian theatrical techniques in his
plays. He himself comments on the relevance of Indian theatre:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‘There is going to be a good
positive development because as we<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">get into the internet age which
isolates human beings, the act of<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">communication will be a premium.
Theatre is our cultural activity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">directly related to human beings’
communication with each other’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(Qtd in Chaudhuri 23).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DANCE LIKE A MAN :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The play <i>Dance
Like a Man, </i>a stage play in two acts, is one of the most wonderful dramatic
creations of Mahesh Dattani. <span style="background: white;">It tells the story
of three generations; their personal ambitions, sacrifices, struggle,
compromises, internal conflicts and the way they try to cope up with the life;
and mainly focuses on a dancing couple</span>. The pathos of human predicament
is explored in the subtlest way. It embodies a brilliant study of human
relationships as well as human weaknesses through its characters. The play
depicts the clash between issues such as marriage, career and the place of a
woman in patriarchal social set up. It deals with the lives of the people who
feel exhausted and frustrated on account of the hostile surroundings and
unfavourable circumstances. The story is unfolded in time past and time
present. The play was first performed at Chowdiah Memorial Hall, Bangalore on
22 September 1989 as a part of the Deccan Herald Theatre. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dattani’s
plays presents the socio-political issues, domestic and individual problems. In
the play Dance like a man, dattani focuses on the conflict and clash between
three generations, their conflicts and individual struggle. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Conflict between the three
generations :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‘There is no original or primary
gender a drag imitates, but gender is a kind of imitation for which there is no
original.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">—Judith Butler<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dattani in this play,
puts a few unlikely questions about the sexual construct that a man is or the
very constituents of a man’s identity-in terms of sexuality, as the head of the
family and as an artist. The play deals with the self and the significance of
the other, through the frameworks of gender and gender roles-the prostitute as
a dancer and an artist; the man as a dancer; the guru who sports long hair and
has an effeminate walk are categories that the older generation, fed on its
perception of the self cannot come to terms with. Dattani uses Traditional
Dance as a medium that creates conflict in the play within the minds of the
other characters. As the play goes forward and the actions take place; Dance
takes the center stage and pushes the characters outside. Traditional Dance, in
the play, is not only a form or a tool that enables the writer to tell his
story but it creates its own psyche that guides or misguides the actors on the
stage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dance is a very significant factor
in this play that means different things to different characters. Jairaj and
Ratna wants to develop their career as dancers and for them Dance is not only a
form of art but also their life and soul. It is not only their passion but also
a tool that will help them to gain desired success. The stereotypes of
gender roles are set against the idea of the artist in search of creativity
within the restrictive structure of the world that he is forced to inhabit.
Jairaj with his obsession for dance dismantles these stereotypes. This is the
twist that the playwright gives to the stereotypes associated with ‘gender’
issues that view solely women at the receiving end of the oppressive power
structures of patriarchal society. The play removes this notion and explores
the nature of the tyranny that even men might be subject to within such
structures. Jairaj and Ratna live within such a structure: the domain of the
patriarch Amritlal, Jairaj’s father. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dance for him is the profession of a
prostitute, improper for his daughter-in-law and absolutely unimaginable for
his son. He forbids Ratna from visiting the old devdasi who teaches her the
intricacies of bharatnatyam; he cannot tolerate the sounds of the dancing bells
that ring through their practice sessions; is astounded at the long-haired guru
with an effeminate walk and cannot, most of all tolerate the idea of his son –a
man- becoming a professional dancer. The underlying fear is surely, that dance
would make him effeminate so that the suggestion of homosexuality hovers near,
though never explicitly mentioned. And hence Amritlal must oppose, tooth and
nail, Jairaj’s passion for dance. This clash brings about the play of property
and money in deciding and manipulating the construction of identities that
would conform, but the result is tragic. He makes a pact with Ratna. He will
permit her career in dance only if she helps him pull Jairaj out of his
obsession and make him a ‘manly’ man. The two can then enjoy the security of
his riches (Chaudhuri 67-68).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In this play, as a reader, one may find that the play poses some
delicate questions among which one surely is of MALE idea. Personally for
Jairaj, Dance is a form or a means to express emotions and stands as the tool
of defiance, revolt, negation of a particular way of life that was decided by
his father, Amritlal. He starts dancing as a hobby or rather a fancy that his
father thought would perish after a period of time but it does not happen that
way. Jairaj continues his practice of traditional dancing in spite of all the
opposition from his father and overtly presents himself as a rebel. He becomes
more headstrong because of the support of his wife, Ratna who also was
interested in traditional form of dancing. The reason behind Amritlal’s
opposition suggests that his mind was not ready to accept his son as a
Bharatnatyam Dancer. This is more clear in AMritlal’s view of dance.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Amritlal : “ A
woman in aman’s world may be considered as progressive. But a man in a woman’s
world is pathetic” </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Amritlal, though being called as progressive fails to accept dance as a
form of art for men. His ideas though were meant to be liberated were actually
devoid of progressive ideas. His ideas of freedom and independence was that
related to the nation whereas Jairaj’s ideas of progressiveness and
independence is way different from that of Amritlal’s. Their conflict in ideas
is seen in their argument on progress and freedom.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jairaj : “Didn’t
you have any obsessions?”</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Amritlal : “ If you
mean my involvement in fighting for your freedom, yes, it was an obsession.”</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jairaj : “You had
yours. Now allow me to have mine.”</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Asha Kuthari Chaudhuri
writes, “Dance like a Man is a play that deals with one of Dattani’s pet
concerns – gender – through one of his principal passions, dance.” (p. 67) </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
<i> </i> In the society everyone wants the Male to earn that much so
that the house would run properly but Amritlal knew that dance would not help
Jairaj to earn enough money and that would make him unworthy in the eyes of his
wife Ratna. For Amritlal, dance was good as far as it remains a hobby but it
was not proper to be taken as a profession. And we should not forget that
traditional dance, especially for Male was not considered a respectable
profession in the olden days in India. Asha Kuthari Chaudhuri says,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span style="background: white;">“The underlying fear is obviously that dance
would make him ‘womanly’ – an effeminate man – the suggestion of homosexuality
hovers near, although never explicitly mentioned.” (p. 68)</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the play Maleness of Jairaj was not that much a question of Body than
that of mentality. Researcher found that for Ratna Maleness might have meant
one’s independent decision making power, doing the work that one liked, living
on one’s own conditions, standing on one’s own feet without any support and
some other that Jairaj lacked. Interestingly even Jairaj was trying to prove
himself an able MALE to Ratna. When Ratna was worried about finding a mridangam
player for her daughter he says,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<i><span style="background: white;">“Will finding a musician make me a man?</span></i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span style="background: white;">
Dance, for Ratna, serves as an undying passion that drives her character
throughout all the actions of the drama. Behind all her moves in the drama,
Dance was the main factor. Her character has a negative shade and that makes
her different than others. She involves herself in a relationship with Jairaj
and that was a clear self-centered decision on her part. No love or attachment
with Jairaj was there on the outset of the relationship. Her overconfidence and
faith in her own talent was so much that she hesitated not even once to destroy
Jairaj’s career as a dancer joining hands with her father-in-law, Amritlal. She
single-mindedly follows her heart overpowered by mind; and tries to be famous
using Dance as a medium. Traditional Dance stands as a thing that will help her
in earning fame and money along with respect in the world of dancers.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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For Ratna Dance was a medium to gain popularity and status and for that she
married Jairaj who would never stop her from dancing. Ratna’s selfish inner
desire was so powerful that she cold-bloodedly plays with the emotions of
Jairaj by misguiding him constantly. In the guise of a true life companion she
deceives her husband and tries to curb his potential as a dancer. In order to
gain personal aims she sacrifices Jairaj’s abilities. Ratna not only spoils
Jairaj’s life but tries to mould her daughter Lata’s life also by making her a
traditional dancer. In spite of being a Male member of the family Jairaj never
tries to command his authority over Ratna and instead, she, very deliberately
plays with his emotions. When Jairaj returned to his father’s house, Ratna
disliked it and she says in the play ones,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“You! You are
nothing but a spineless boy who couldn’t leave his father’s house for more than
forty-eight hours.”</span></i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span style="background: white;">
Lata, her daughter, was used by her to fulfill her inner suppressed desires to
earn fame and money nationwide and abroad. Unknowingly Lata falls in the
whirlpool created by Ratna and becomes the object only. Ratna’s endeavors seem
very ambitious and manipulative. She was ready to establish her daughter’s
career on the right track right from the very beginning and for that she
schemes, manipulates and uses all her contacts and links. It is very clear that
Ratna saw her own self in her daughter Lata and therefore acted so violently to
create a firm, concrete base for her. It is this quality that makes her
different from others. For her Traditional Dance was important but it never
became a wild passion at any point of time. The desire to take dance, as a
hobby was very clear in her mind as she tells Vishwas,</span><br />
<br />
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<i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“When I was a
little girl, I used to stand near the door and watch mummy and daddy practice.
It was magic for me. I knew then what I wanted to be.”</span></i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span style="background: white;">
She takes dance as a pure art form and does not
link it to any gender. She wanted to pursue dance but her desire was not
blended with any passion or force. For her, marrying Vishwas was also important
and she wouldn’t sacrifice her love for the dance. Her balanced mind makes her
likable and different from her parents. Actually she is away from the circle in
which her parents were trapped which was too vicious to believe. She dances and
continues to do so because it is a hobby for her and not a way that leads to
the path of success. There is no malice, over ambition or misled want in her
that keeps her interest in dance. Considering this aspects reader can conclude
that Lata stands in stark contrast with other characters.</span><br />
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">What therefore starts as a portrayal
of staunch patriarchy in most of his plays opens up new domains of study, where
Dattani subverts the norms to present the alternate views. Thus, what emerges
is a new definition of masculinity not merely as an antonym of feminity but
paving a way for men to break their “alpha roars” and do what they would
perhaps like to. As Butler says, it is possible to “do” these cultural
constructions of sexuality. And as for the females, they can opt for a path of
their own too, breaking their silence and the performative roles that they have
always played, knowingly or unknowingly, willingly or unwillingly (Mallick,
par.33).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Conclusion :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dance Like a Man is a play that does not present the character as pure
White or Black but it shows their different shades in all possibilities. The
play poses fundamental questions and presents the actors with the best of their
talents. It demands the answer whether the world is progressive in real sense
or we are still in search of that utopian era where no dance form is actually
attached to any gender of the dancer but considered as a pure form of Art.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIT-
V: FICTION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Swami
and his friends<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> - R. K.
Narayan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b><i>Swami and Friends</i></b> is the first of a
trilogy of novels written by RK Narayan (1906–2001), English language novelist
from India. The novel, Narayan's first, is set in British India in a fictional
town called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malgudi" title="Malgudi">Malgudi</a>.
The second and third books in the trilogy are <i>The Bachelor of Arts</i> and <i>The
English Teacher</i>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<i>Malgudi Schooldays</i> is a slightly abridged
version of <i>Swami and Friends</i>, and includes two additional stories
featuring Swami from <i>Malgudi Days</i> and <i>Under the Banyan Tree</i>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Overall
summary<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Swami and Friends is the first of a trilogy of
novels written by RK Narayan, a celebrated English novelist from India.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
RK Narayan started his prolific writing career with
this novel Swami and Friends written in 1935. It is full of humor and irony.
Narayan started writing this novel with the words “It was Monday morning…” to
the auspicious time his grandmother chose for him. Like many of his fictional
grandmothers, he was close to his grandmother who was well versed with
astrology. Despite this it took time for the budding writer to be acknowledged
as an author. Fortunately for him, he had helped from many quarters, such as
the well-established author British author Graham Green. He called Swami and
Friends a work of “remarkable maturity, and of the finest promise…and is the
boldest gamble a novelist can take. If he allows himself to take sides,
moralise, propaganda, he can easily achieve an extra-literary interest, but if
he follows Mr. Narayan’s method, he stakes all on his creative power.”</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The novel is set in pre-independence days in India,
in a fictional town – Malgudi, which has almost become a real place in India
today, due to the wide recognition and popularity of Narayan’s many novels. His
novels are known for their ‘deftly etched characters, his uniquely stylized
language and his wry sense of humor’.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Swami and Friends is the story of a 10-year-old
boy, growing up during this particular time, his innocence, wonder, mischief
and growing pains. He is a student at Albert Mission School, a school
established by the British which gives importance to Christianity, English
literature and education. His life is dramatically changed when Rajam – a
symbol of colonial super power – joins the school and he and Rajam become
friends.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
At first glance, Swami and Friends is nothing more
than a simple, charming story of a ten-year old boy who lives in a world of (in
his eyes) bossy adults – be they parents or teachers at school – and his
friends and enemies at school. His life is fairly complex and he has a tough
job to do: pleasing both his demanding peers and also the dour world of adults
around him. He manages his tough balancing act for a while but then two
incidents change his life forever. Finally, he gets out of trouble, but the
cost is heavy: he loses the friendship of Rajam, the son of the Police
Superintendent and is devastated at his departure at the end.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The central theme of the novel is growing up of
young Swami. He is a spontaneous, impulsive, mischievous and yet a very
innocent child. His character is a child in the fullest sense of the world.
Through Swami’s eyes the reader gets to peak in to the pre-independence days in
South India. The life portrayed in the novel is accurate in its description of the
colonial days – the uprisings, the rebellions, the contempt and the reverence
the natives had for their subjugator, together with varied elements that have
become one, such as cricket and education.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Unlike many colonial and post-colonial writers
Narayan does not directly attack or criticize the colonial system, although
elements of gentle criticism and irony directed towards the colonial system,
are scattered through out Swami and Friends and all his other novels. He has
rather directed his creativity at depicting the life of the people at the time.
It is almost as if he is charmed by these unsophisticated and simple, yet
eccentric people and their lives. It is unclear if he refrained from an all out
attack on the British colonial system out of choice or reverence. But it seems
at this point in his career, (and during this particular point of India’s
history), when he is starting out as an author, he would write to the English
speaking audience in India and for the vast audience abroad. Hence it would be folly
to attack the very system that would sustain him as a novelist, his career of
choice. Asked about why he was unbothered about the prevailing political crisis
and other happenings during the time, Narayan replied in an interview thus ”
When art is used as a vehicle for political propaganda, the mood of comedy, the
sensitivity to atmosphere, the probing of psychological factors, the crisis of
the individual soul and its resolution and above all the detached observation
which constitutes the stuff of fiction is forced into the background.” Beyond
this, he also had tremendous regard for the English language and literature as
an aesthetic past time, and was not blind to its value in that regard.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The absence of criticism on the colonial system
maybe also due to the fact that Narayan simply believed the colonizer and the
colonized could live together in harmony, benefiting each other. Most
Englishmen and the natives certainly seem to do so in his novels, such as Mr
Retty (Swami and Friends) and Matheison (Waiting for the Mahatma). The rice
mill owner Mr Retty was “the most Indianized of the ‘Europeans’….and was the
mystery man of the place: nobody could say who he was or where he had come
from: he swore at his boy and his customers in perfect Tamil and always moved
about in shirt, shorts and sandaled feet.” Mr Matheison feels strongly for
Indians and considers himself Indian. “You see, it is just possible I am as
much attached to this country as you are.” Only Mr Brown seems to be the ‘black
sheep’ in this regard. His Western mind is only capable of “classifying,
labeling and departmentalizing…” And the gentle criticism and irony directed
towards him was in the same way directed towards his fellow countrymen. In his
mind British or Indian, they were all human beings with prejudices, follies,
errors, kindness and goodness, each in varying degrees.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Narayan’s success as a writer emerges from his
portrayal of a unique culture, and yet at the same time a subtle criticism of
the alien political power. For this he used the tools of humor and irony. His
success in reconciling these two opposing ends is seen in the fact that
Narayan’s novels are received well both in his native country India and all
around the world.<br />
When the novel unfolds, we are told that Swami has four friends. ‘He
(Swaminathan) honoured only four persons with his confidence’ – Somu, the
Monitor, who carried himself with such an easy air; Mani the mighty
Good-For-Nothing; Sankar, the most brilliant boy of the class and Samuel who
was known as the Pea, who had nothing outstanding about him, like Swami, but
they were united in their ability to laugh at everything. Swami’s relationships
with each of these friends were different, but he cherished them all. This
harmonious existence is threatened with the arrival of Rajam. Rajam is the
colonial superpower that Narayan introduces. He symbolizes the new Indian
middle class that Thomas Babington Macaulay anticipated in his now famous 1835
Minute on Education ‘a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English
in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.’</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
“He (Rajam) was a new-comer; he dressed very well-
he was the only boy in class who wore socks and shoes, fur cap and tie, and a
wonderful coat and nickers. He spoke very good English, exactly like a European;
which meant that few in the school could make out what he said.” The last
sentence in the quotation actually runs beyond its literary meaning. Rajam
brought up in a different atmosphere than that of his fellow classmates did in
fact speak differently and few understood what he said. Rajam wanted to be
better than the rest, to be successful, to impress and to lead. As the novel
progresses we see that he is neither affectionate, loyal nor faithful to his
friends. At the same time he is confident, intelligent and rarely if ever loses
his composure. He has developed the proverbial ‘English stiff upper lip.’ Swami
was greatly impressed by Rajam and wanted to be friends with him. And when he
finally does so, this friendship initially creates friction between his earlier
friends.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The turning point in his young life comes when
impulsively he decides to join a rebellion against the British. He was however,
not being patriotic, but rather impulsive, and was enjoying breaking
windowpanes by throwing stones. He is punished harshly by the principal and in
a moment of desperation runs away from the school. He is later admitted to
another school – Board High School. It is during this time that Rajam, Mani and
Swami form a Cricket Club and set a date for a match against another cricket
club. Swami is now under pressure by Rajam to attend cricket practices; he
skips his drill classes in order to do so, and gets into trouble with the drill
teacher. In yet another moment of desperation he runs away both from school and
home. He gets lost on the road, but is found by a cart-man and is brought home.
He learns that he had indeed missed the cricket match, which he took such pains
to practice for.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Rajam stubbornly refuses to see him after this, and
after a lapse of some days Swami comes to know through Mani that Rajam’s father
was transferred and was moving the next day. Swami is crushed, but in his
innocence, he erroneously thinks that Rajam will relent and forgive. Rajam had
decided otherwise and hardened himself against forgiving. There is immense
poignancy in the parting seen between the friends. It is heightened by the fact
that the reader knows that Rajam has not and will not forgive Swami, while
Swami believes that he is forgiven and is grieving for his “dearest friend’s”
departure:</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
“At the sight of the familiar face Swaminathan lost
control of himself and cried: ‘Oh Rajam, Rajam you are going away. When will
you come back? Rajam kept looking at him without a word and then (as it seems
to Swaminathan) opened his mouth to say something, when everything was
disturbed by the guard’s blast and the hoarse whistle of the engine.……Rajam’s
face with the words still unuttered on his lips, receded”</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Swami did not have the money to buy a lavish gift
for Rajam, but had thoughtfully decided to give him an English book “Anderson’s
Fairy Tales” and writes on the flyleaf ‘To my dearest friend Rajam’. In this
last episode Narayan stresses the difference between the thoughtless Rajam and
his devoted two friends Swami and Mani. Rajam was ‘dressed like a European
boy’, his very appearance was alien to them, but it is not only on the outside
that Rajam was different, but even within, as the reader sees through out the
novel and especially at the end. To Narayan, Rajam’s ways and thinking are different,
much like the “Europeans.” Rajam in his superiority does not feel he owes
anybody explanations or farewells. He came, he conquered and he will go as he
pleases. This attitude of Rajam’s is akin to that of the colonizer who came,
conquered, made drastic changes in the lives of Indians and then left just as
abruptly as he had come, leaving chaos behind. Rajam was the symbol of that
‘class of people’ the British colonizer bred, who invariably became alien and
even contemptuous to their very own culture.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The novel, first intended for a very young
audience, later expanded into a universal one, for its simple narrative and
depiction of colonial India. Today in India it is recommended as a textbook or
a reference book. One of the most glaring facts about the novel is the
similarity of children through out the world, and how they have not changed
since the time the novel was written. Children are all mischievous, impulsive
and innocent like Swami. They all play and enjoy just like Swami, and try to
circumvent doing homework by ingenious excuses and methods. Like Swami most
children – even today- attend schools that do not nourish their heritage and
culture, throughout the world including the US.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The criticism of the educational system and the
lack of faith in it is a common theme of Narayan. It runs throughout this
trilogy Swami and Friends, The Bachelor of Arts and The English Teacher.
Narayan’s own father who was a principal did not think much of the system as
Narayan and his many fictional characters, such as Swami, Chandran, Krishna,
Sriram and a host of others. But the educational system comes under grave
criticism in this trilogy, and discussed at length in The English Teacher.
(Read The English Teacher web page in this site.) It is not that Narayan thought
that education was useless, but rather that the school and education system
founded by the British was irrelevant. He was maybe among the second generation
of persons who received a formal education in India during the time, and saw
how his grandparents and many other of his countrymen surviving, thriving and
living as good human beings, perhaps even better than the ‘educated folk,’
without any education.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
R.K.Narayan’s first short novel, Swami and Friends,
also provides the setting for his later novels and short stories, Malgudi.
Malgudi is the typical Indian middle and lower-middle class town and something
that provides a window into the life-blood of South India: its unique culture,
its simple people and also its paradoxes.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Swami is a paradox throughout the narration.
R.K.Narayan does a wonderful job in bringing out his emotional pysche. While
Swami sincerely and innocently believes in the sanctity of his friendship with
Rajam, Rajam remains aloof and impersonal. Swami’s relationship with his peer
group is very complex as so-called ‘friends’. The novel is full of irony and
subtle wit. And also disturbing. Friendship at that age is nothing more than
peer pressure and this is a fact that Swami cannot fathom. He tries to impress
his friends and peers. He acts impulsively and loses control of himself on more
than one occasion. He gets little emotional support at home or from his peers.
School is a place where life is tough. Constant pressure from all directions
finally tells on Swami and he bends.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Narayan also gently laughs at the world in which
Swami lives. The paradoxes of pre-independence India, the alternating aloof and
passionate nature of the people, the confusions that encompass the mind of a
child in such a volatile environment: all those things are brought out
beautifully. Narayan takes a dig at the educational system too as envisioned by
the British masters. The use of the cane, the degrading and humiliating nature
of the ‘stand-up-on-the-desk’ punishment, the heavy workload are all shown up
by Narayan for what they are: a cruel way of education which mass-produces
unimaginative clerks and subordinate staff to serve in the British
administrative machine. The real irony of this is seen when Swami runs away
from the Board High school and feels nostalgic about his old school: the Albert
Mission.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
In the final analysis, Swami and Friends is more
than the story of a child. It is the story of a generation of Indians who are
born and brought up in the shadow of the British colonial Raj and who inherit
the confusions of the cultural and social conflict. This is best seen where
Swami is seen alternatively admiring and envying Rajam: the rich boy who walks
to school dressed like a ‘European’. Swami is caught between two worlds as
represented by Mani and Rajam. Rajam who stands for all that is posh and
urbane, smooth and unemotional, well educated yet hard and ruthless in a way.
The other end is Mani who is rough, untamed, naive, emotional and yet loyal.
The masterly irony is seen because these two characters not only meet but (in
Swami’s eyes) they also apparently get along well. To the end, Swami cannot
understand the difference and hence the pathos in the final scene.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Narayan passes no judgement on anybody. He presents
Swami for what he is and also the world around him for what it is. His style is
smooth and simple. His sentences are crisp, yet unconventional. His use of
certain ‘Indianisms’ might alienate the foreign reader, yet they convey his
meaning adequately. The apparent discontinuity of narration at places serves to
enhance, rather than dispel, the overall effect. The cultural aspect is very
visible throughout: for example Swami’s fearful respect towards his father, his
closeness to his grandmother, his turbulent relationships at school and his
total emotional isolation in spite of physical proximity to so many people are
so typical of Indian life where visible demonstration of love and care are seen
as signs of weakness and a thing of shame. Throughout Swami grovels in darkness
around him and yet does not see himself as being in the dark: that is the final
irony and the one the cuts deepest.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
A highly readable novel that can be read on all
levels. While my review focusses more on the psychological aspects of the book,
the book can also be read without all this mental baggage. That is what keeps
Swami and Friends evergreen and fresh at even this day and age.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju, the tourist guide has just
been released from the jail. He sits cross-legged beside an ancient shrine near
the village Mangal. The shrine is on the banks of the river Sarayu. The
villager named Velan comes there after seeing his married daughter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju has his last shave only two
days before after his release from the jail. The talkative barber says, “You
look like a maharaja now”. The barber is a master and wise man. He guesses
rightly that Raju has been released from the jail. Raju repeats, “Not a bad
place”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Velan looks at Raju with a great
devotion and Raju tells him, “I am not so great as you imagine. I am just
ordinary”. But Velan has his own problem to be solved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Then Raju recalls his own past. He
thought that Rosie has not come from a foreign land. She was just an Indian
like Devi, Meena, Lalitha or any one of the thousand names in India. Rosie was
a great classical but an orthodox dancer. Raju was the first man to appreciate
her art of dancing but her husband was a grotesque creature in his life. He
looked like a space traveler and was dressed like a permanent tourist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju thought about his past life as
a tourist guide. He lived in a small house opposite to Malgudi Railway Station.
His father had a small shop and all day he sat there selling peppermint, fruit,
tobacco, betel leaf, parched gram, and whatever else the wayfarers on the Trunk
Road demanded. It was known as the ‘hut- shop’. Raju recalled his childhood
memories of his own life, his father, mother and his trips to the town.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">When Velan raises his own problem
about his father’s last wife’s youngest daughter, Raju talks magnificently like
a holy man of Lord Buddha and the dead child. Raju then tells him that everyone
has a problem. Velan’s problem is that the girl shows no gratitude and is
unwilling to accept his plans for her marriage with his cousin’s son. Raju asks
Velan to bring her there and he would talk to her. When Velan goes away, Raju
is left alone. He says himself, ‘I shall be rewarded for this profound service
to humanity. People will say, “Here is the man who knows the exact number of
stars in the sky. If you have any trouble on that account, you had better
consult him. He will be your right guide for the skies”. While counting the
stars in the sky, he fell asleep under the open sky.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Next morning Velan comes to Raju
with his step-sister of fourteen years old. Velan has brought a basket filled
with bananas, cucumbers, pieces of sugar-cane, fried nuts, and copper vessel
brimming with milk. Raju sat in silence, eyeing the gift for a while and then
picked up the basket and went into an inner sanctum. He placed the basket of
edibles at the feet of the image and said, “It’s His first. Let the offering go
to Him, first; and we will eat the remnant.” Then he began narrating the story
of Devaka, a man of ancient times who begged alms at the temple gate every day
and would not use any of his collections without first putting them at the feet
of the god. This story was told him by his mother but he couldn’t remember the
whole story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suddenly Raju said to Velan, “I am
not going to think of your problem, Velan, not now.” Velan retorts ‘why’. Raju
says, “When the time is ripe for it”. He also tells Velan that he should think
over the problem and further adds, “Whatever is written here will
happen-------.We may not change it, but we may understand it”---------- ‘And to
arrive at a proper understanding, time is needed’. Velan understands and appreciates
his wisdom. Raju looks at Velan’s difficult sister and says, ‘What must happen
must happen; no power on earth or in heaven can change its course, just as no
one can change the course of that river’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju as a child is now growing fast.
Very soon the train is to be introduced in Malgudi. He sees the men busy in the
track outlines of Mempi Hills. Then Raju’s father does not send him to Albert
Mission School but to a Pyol School in Kabir Lane. Raju begins to learn the
alphabet and numbers there. Thus Raju’s education begins. The school master
gets one rupee a month and some gifts by the students’ guardians or parents.
Raju then is sent in Board High School for the first standard.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Velan comes near Raju with the news
of a miracle and tells him that his sister’s problem is over and she is ready
to marry her cousin. Before The assembled family she said, “I have been a
bother to you all these days. Forgive me, all of you. I shall do whatever my
elders order me to do”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One day Velan comes back and invites
Raju to his sister’s marriage but Raju avoids the wedding ceremony. After
wedding the girl regards Raju as her saviour and tells everyone, “He doesn’t
speak to anyone, but if he looks at you, you are changed”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Very soon a huge mob begins to
gather in the evening at the temple on the river bank of Sarayu and takes him
as a saint. But Raju felt that he himself was an intruder. After release from
the jail he tried very hard to think where he should go next and what to do.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One evening he hides behind a bush
to avoid the villagers. One of the villagers said, “He is a big man, he may go
anywhere, he may have a thousand things to do”. Another man said, “Yogis can
travel to the Himalayas just by a thought”. Next morning Raju realized that he
had no alternative. He has to play the role Velan had given to him. Raju begins
to play the role of a saint. He calls Velan’s nephew and asks him to tell his
uncle that he has come again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One day, the Railway station
building at Malgudi is ready. The Stationmaster and a porter began to stay in
stone house at the back of the station. Raju’s father became a prosperous
businessman. He acquires a jutka and a horse in order to go to the town and do
his shopping. He uttered the word ‘bank’. As a shopkeeper he runs a shop at the
Railway station. Because of Raju’s mother’s continuous opposition, he sells the
horse the carriage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The stationmaster and the porter
named Karia came to observe Raju’s father’s shop. As per the suggestions of the
stationmaster, the shop is filled in with bananas, Mempi oranges, fried stuff,
colourful papermints and sweets, loaves of bread, buns and cigarettes.
Occasionally Raju is made the in-charge of this hut-shop and the customers did
not find in him a good companion for them. Very soon, Raju’s father asks him to
handle the business in the new shop at Malgudi Railway Station and it
stopped his schooling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The banana which Raju gave to
Velan’s nephew worked a miracle. The nephew told everyone that the saint is
back at his post. Naturally, men, women, and children assembled there in a
large number. Raju advised them about education. Next day, the schoolteacher
visits Raju and Raju tells him the importance of education. He advises the
teacher, “After all self-help is the best help”, and “It is our duty to make
everyone happy and wise”. The teacher responds him that he will do anything
under his guidance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The result is that the teacher went
back to the village as a changed man. The students came there and Raju spoke to
them on godliness, cleanliness, and the Ramayana. Raju gets hypnotized by his
own voice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju’s father dies and his mother
becomes a widow. Raju closed down his father’s hut-shop and set the new shop at
Malgudi Railway Station. He felt like an actor who had come on the stage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Velan comes there and asks Raju,
“Give a discourse, Sir”. The only topic on which he could speak with any
authority was his own jail life and its benefits for one mistaken for a saint.
He says, “All things have to wait their hour”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju soon realized that his spiritual
status would be enhanced if he grew a beard and long hair to fall upon his
nape. His prestige as a saint had grown beyond his wildest dreams. His
influence on the mob was unlimited. He not only chanted holy verses but also
discoursed on philosophy. He began to prescribe medicines to children who would
not go to sleep. Even he settled the disputes and quarrels over the division of
ancestral property.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju became famous as ‘Railway
Raju’. Perfect strangers began to ask him about the famous spots around
Malgudi. His friend, the old shark is Gaffur, the taxi- driver. Gaffur takes
the tourists in his car to various places. Within a few days Raju became a
full-blown tourist guide. Occasionally, he asks the porter’s son to look after
his shop and he goes with tourists in Gaffur’s taxi. At home, Raju’s mother
asks him to accept the proposal of Lalitha, the young daughter of her brother.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In a few months Raju became a
seasoned guide. He became a part-time shopkeeper and a full time tourist guide.
Malgudi and its surroundings were his special show. His tourists are of many
kinds and types and he tries to please them of all. One day a very strange
tourist named Marco came to Malgudi along with his wife named Rosie from
Madras. Raju made their lodging provision at the Anand Bhavan Hotel. Rosie had
a figure. A slight and slender one beautifully fashioned with sparkled eyes and
dusky complexion. As soon as she set foot in Malgudi, she asked Raju, ‘Can you
show me a cobra- a King Cobra it must be- which can dance to the music of a
flute’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">While Marco is engaged in
investigating carving episodes from the Ramayana on the stone wall in Iswara
Temple in North Extension, Raju took Rosie in Gaffur’s taxi to watch a cobra
dance at Nallappa’s grove on the other side of the river. Rosie swayed her body
in a dance giving the snake- girl performance. Rosie appears to be the greatest
dancer of the century to Raju.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rosie’s husband, Marco is an
extraordinary hateful fellow. When Raju tells his mother about their visit to a
snake charmer, she doubts about the girl as a snake- dancer. Thereupon Raju
says, ‘Mother, she is a good girl, not a snake-worshipper. She is a dancer’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Next day, Raju went upstairs to Room
28 on the second floor of the hotel. Marco, the strange man wanted to study the
friezes. He also wanted to study the cave-paintings. Rosie is not willing to
come with Marco to see caves. But Raju goes back to Room no. 28 and persuades
Rosie to come along with them. He appreciates her dance, form and figure and
introduces himself in these words, ‘My name is Raju’. Then he asks her to be
ready and remarks, ‘Who would decorate a rainbow?’ Yet she is not willing to
join them but Raju says, ‘Because life is so blank without your presence’. She
responds, ‘Wait a minute, then’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now Rosie, Raju and Marco go to the
Peak House in Gaffur’s car. The Peak House is situated on the topmost cliff on
Mempi Hills. The river Sarayu is seen sparkling at a distance. Joseph is their
caretaker. He is nearly sixty years old man. He was converted into a Christian
by the missionaries. They have to stay there for a night. Joseph gave them some
useful suggestions and said to Rosie,’ If you sit up on that veranda, you can
watch tigers and other animals prowling about. But you must not make any noise;
that is the secret of it’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">At seven-thirty in the evening, Raju
tried to serve the dinner. At that time Rosie said, ‘No, no. Let me serve you
both, and I will be the last to eat, like a good housewife’. When Raju tries to
serve a dish to Marco, Rosie snatches it from his hands and it is her golden
touch on which his memory lingers on. The soul of Raju is crying to say her
that won’t she be his sweetheart. After the dinner Raju and Rosie went to the
glass veranda to watch animals and Marco was lost in his papers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Next day, Marco and Raju went to the
valley to study caves keeping Rosie in the Guest House. Marco is engaged in his
ruin collecting activities. Immediately, Raju went back to
the Guest House where Rosie was
alone. Rosie surprisingly said, ‘Looking for me?’ Raju learnt from
Rosie that they had quarrels every night. But Raju said, ‘Being with you must
be such a bliss’. Then Raju praised her dancing and spoke out his love for her.
He spoke of her as ‘an artist……World’s artist number one’. Then she said, ‘You
are a brother to me’ and gave all details of their married life. She told him
that she belonged to a family traditionally dedicated to the temples as
dancers. The women in her family are considered as public women and are not
considered respectable. She has taken her master’s degree in Economics. Hers is
a registered marriage with Marco and he is a man of high social standing; He
has a house outside Madras. But he is interested in painting and old arts. Raju
overcame with the sadness in her life and said, ‘In his place, I would have
made you a queen of the world’ and put his hand on her shoulder.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Marco’s car didn’t come back because
of breakdown, so they stayed there for another night. When Gaffur’s car came
there, Marco asked Raju to bring his black trunk from the hotel. At that time
Rosie seeks his permission to go back to hotel and says, ‘We may not be able to
return tonight’. After coming back to Malgudi, Raju goes to his home to change.
His mother comments, ‘Becoming a dandy’ Gaffur, too, warned him, ‘She is a
married woman, remember’. Thereupon Raju said, ‘She is like a sister to me’. At
night Raju and Rosie went to see a movie and returned to the hotel after the
picture. At midnight, he stepped in Room No. 28 and locked the door on the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Several years have passed. Men and
women are busy worshipping Raju as a saint. His disciples brought him special
gifts according to seasons and festivals of the year. So he did not require a
calendar. His beard now caressed his chest and his hair covered his back. He
wore a necklace of prayer-beads around his neck. His eyes were filled with the
light of wisdom. Whatever gifts his disciples brought him, he gave them all
back to the women and children at the end of each day. He protested to Velan
and said, ‘I am a poor man and you are poor men; why do you give me all this?
You must stop it.’ But people called him Swami.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the first half of the year there
were rains; but in the second half of the year there were no rains. The summer
seemed to continue. Raju asked, ‘Where are the rains?’ The millet crop is all
scorched on the stalks. A thousand banana seedlings are dead. Raju’s reaction
is, ‘Such things are common; don’t worry too much about them. Let us hope for
the best.’ However, the cattle do not get grass to eat. The river Sarayu became
dry. Sugar-canes were wilted. The villagers always talked about the scarcity of
the rains. Raju decreed, ‘You must not think too much of it. The rain god
sometimes teases those who are obsessed with thoughts of him.’ Yet it was
reality that cattle stopped giving milk and flocks of sheep became dry. The
wells in the villages were drying up. The earth was fast drying up. A buffalo
was found dead on a foot track. Velan took the Swami to observe the scene in
the village. The Swami raised his hand and said, ‘Be peaceful; I will fix it
with gods.’ He gave several explanations of the losses and pleased the
villagers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">More cattle were found dead here and
there. The village shopman started charging high prices. As a matter of fact,
there was a battle between the shopman’s relatives and sympathizers and Velan
and his men. Next morning Velan’s brother came to Raju with sad news that
several villagers and Velan got injured skulls and burns. After listening to
the story of the village quarrel from Velan’s twenty-one years old brother, a
semi-moron, Raju said to him, ‘Tell your brother, immediately, wherever he may
be, that unless they are good I will never eat.’ Raju has given the message
that he will not eat till they are good. Velan’s brother of the lesser
intelligences ran into the assembly of his village elders and said, ‘The Swami,
Swami, doesn’t food anymore. Don’t take any food to him.’ When asked ‘Why’, the
boy replied that it doesn’t rain and there should be no fight. Then all the
villagers declared, ‘Let us all go and pay our respects to Swami, our saviour.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju was waiting for his usual gifts
and food. He had suggested them to bring him wheat flour, rice flour and spices
so that he can prepare something new. He has liking for bonda, which he used to
eat in the railway station stall. It was composed of flour, potato, a slice of
onion, a coriander leaf and a green chili. Now he sees a crowd coming to him.
They called him Mahatma. They touched his feet. Velan said, ‘Your penance is
similar to Mahatma Gandhi’s. He has left us a disciple in you to save us.’
Velan remains there to look after him. When Raju says that the next day he will
take his usual food, Velan asked him, ‘Do you expect it to rain tomorrow, Sir?
Velan expected him to stand in knee-deep water, look to the skies, and utter
the prayer lines for two weeks, completely fasting during the period- and so
the rains would come down, provided the man who performed it was a pure soul,
was a great soul. Raju had told them, ‘When the time comes, everything will be
all right. Even the man who would bring you rain will appear, all of a sudden’.
Then he asked Velan to live him alone that night and come to see tomorrow
night. Velan agreed to do so.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now Raju suddenly thinks of leaving
the place for good or he might be in trouble. If he left the place, people will
conclude that he had gone to Himalayas. He cooked his food and kept a reserve
of food for a second meal at night.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Finally, Raju tells Velan that he is
not a saint; he is an ordinary man like anyone else. He tells his life story to
Velan. Velan listened to him without uttering a word of surprise or
interjection in all humility.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 7<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Marco accepted Rosie as a member of
the family. He was just an impractical and absolutely helpless man. He married
Rosie out of desire to have someone care for his practical life but his choice
was wrong. The girl herself was a dreamer. However, Raju gave up all his
routine jobs in order to be of service to them. At Peak House he was in entire
charge of Marco’s all affairs. Gaffur’s car was permanently engaged for Marco.
Joseph looked after Marco’s needs at the hotel and Raju spends much of his time
looking after Marco and Rosie. Marco paid him his daily rate also allowed to
look after his ‘routine jobs’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju is more interested in Rosie
than her husband. Gaffur is not happy with Raju because he does not like that
he should get involved with her. While going back to the hotel, Gaffur says to
Raju that an old, uneducated wife is better than the new type of girl. Raju is
obsessed with thoughts of Rosie. He is now spending more money on being looking
very smart. His shop is being managed by the boy. Raju’s mother always warns
him to keep eye on that boy. Then Raju went over to the shop and checked the
accounts. The boy informed him that the two tourists who were interested in
sightseeing went away disappointed. The boy always called him ‘Raju sir’. Raju
did not care for his own mother, the shop and his bank balance. The only
reality in his life and consciousness is Rosie. The man at the desk and the
boys at the hotel were watchful about Raju’s arrival and departure in Room No.
28.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It is difficult to Raju to
understand Rosie’s mind. She allowed him to make love to her husband on the
hill. She would say, ‘After all, he is my husband. I have to respect him. I
cannot leave him there’. Furthermore she cries, ‘Is this right what I am doing
After all; he has been so good to me, given me comfort and freedom. What
husband in the world would let his wife go and live in a hotel room by herself,
a hundred miles away?’ Again she says, ‘As a good man he may not mind, but is
it not a wife’s duty to guard and help her husband, whatever the way in which
he deals with her?’ Raju is now in a confused mood. He feels that Marco would
come down the hills and take her away. He asks Rosie, ‘Why don’t you stay up
with him, then?’ She tells that he sits up all night writing and all day he is
in the cave.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rosie asks him whether he is also
like her husband not interested in her dancing. Raju replies, ‘I will do
anything for you. I will give my life to see you dance. Tell me what to do. I
will do it for you’. This remark delighted her. She gets a bronze image of
Nataraja, the god of dancers. At five in the morning she would start her
practice and continue for three hours. She would then spend an hour or two in
studying the Natyashastra of Bharatmuni. Raju is not really interested in her
music and dancing but keep up the false face. Rosie tells him so many things
about the dance and says, ‘What a darling. You are giving a new lease of life’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rosie along with Raju goes to the
hill to see her husband. Marco talks about a wonderful third cave. Then he
showed him some marvelous cave paintings. But Raju is ignorant about them. But
still he went through them with a show of interest. Marco told him, ‘When this
is published, it’ll change all our present ideas of the history of
civilization. I shall surely mention in the book my debt to you in discovering
this place.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Two days later Raju went back to the
hill and Joseph told him that Marco and Rosie had gone down and didn’t return
yet. After some time Marco returned and Rosie followed him silently. Suddenly
Marco said, ‘It’ll not be necessary for either of you to come in’ and shut the
door of his room. Rosie then passed up the steps without a word, opened the
door of his room and went into the room. This behaviour baffled Raju.
Meanwhile, Gafffur came round to ask, ‘What time are we going down?’ Raju said,
‘Why are you in a hurry, Gaffur?’ Gaffur came close to Raju and said, ‘Raju,
this in not at all good. Let us get away. Leave them alone. After all, they are
husband and wife; they’ll know how to make it up. Come on. Go back to your
normal work. You are so interested and carefree and happy then.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju thought over Gaffur’s advice
for a while and asked him to wait near the car. Then he heard Marco calling
Gaffur, ‘Driver, are you ready to go?’ Marco picked up his bundle and started
walking to the car. It puzzled Raju. He tried to cross the hall and open the
door but it was bolted. Then Raju went near the car. Marco had already taken
his seat. Raju asked Marco with courage, ‘Where are you going?’ Marco replied,
‘I’m going down to the hotel to close my accounts there.’ Then Raju said, ‘Take
that man wherever he may want to go and bring me back the car tomorrow- and you
will make complete settlement of all your bills with him. Keep a separate
account for my own trips.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There is a quarrel between Raju and
Marco. Raju opened the door of the car and pulled Marco out of it and said,
‘You can’t abandon a wife in this place and go away.’ Marco asked, ‘Who are
you? What is your business?’ and said, ‘And I dispense with your service from
this minute. Give me your bill and be done with it.’ Again, he said, ‘Let us be
done with everything, and then you get out of my sight.’ Raju asked Joseph to
open the other suite and account it to him. Raju entered in this new suite and
left the door open. Marco had gone and bolted himself in his own room.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Half an hour passed without any
speech or movement. Raju was worried about Rosie’s food. So he himself put the
food on plates, put them on a tray and walked to their room. Rosie was lying on
her bed with eyes shut and Marco was sitting in his chair. Raju placed the tray
before Marco. Rosie opened her eyes and said, ‘Don’t waste any more of your
time with us. You go back. That’s all I have to say.’ Raju said, ‘First, you
must have your food. For what reason are you fasting? She repeated, ‘I want you
to go.’ Raju became weak and cowardly at her tone and thought that she had been
in his arms forty-eight hours ago and was asking him to leave. Raju came back
to Gaffur and left the place. Gaffur said, ‘It’s time your elders found a bride
for you. Raju I’m senior in years. I think this is the best thing you have
done. You will be more happy hereafter.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Then a more miserable period of his
life started. He had no taste for food, no sound sleep, no stability, no peace
of mind, no sweetness of temper or speech- no. no. no. a number of no’s.
Everything looked so unreal. He relieved the boy and began to look after the
shop. He started to work as ‘Railway Raju’, the guide. However, he did not
forget Rosie. Thirty days passed and one day his mother said to him, ‘Someone
is asking for you.’ There stood Rosie on the threshold, with a trunk at her
feet and a bag under her arm. Raju welcomed her and told his mother that Rosie
is their guest now. There is a discussion between Raju’s mother and Rosie about
whereabouts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju asks Rosie to tell him everything
from beginning to end. Rosie asked Marco for his permission to dance but he
regarded dancing as street-acrobatics. Rosie said, ‘Everyone except you likes
it.’ And it was her blunder. Then Marco worked as an examining doctor and
subjected to a close questioning. He asked details of their movements. Finally
he said, ‘I didn’t know that that hotel catered to ‘such fervid art- lovers! I
was a fool to have taken too much decency for granted.’ Rosie felt that she had
made the capital blunder of her life. She realized that she had committed a
sin. She was terrified and pitied her husband. Marco felt as if he was alone in
the world. He would not eat his food. He did not look at her and speak to her.
He told, ‘This is my last word to you. Don’t talk to me. You can go where you
please or do what you please.’ Rosie asked for pardon and said, “I want to be
with you. I want you to forget everything. I want to forgive me.” He said, ‘You
are not my wife. You are a woman who will go to bed with anyone that flatters your
antics. That’s all. I don’t want you here, but if you are going to be here,
don’t talk. That is all.’ The Othello was kindlier to Desdemona.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One day Marco started packing his
luggage in Room No. 28 as he alone was going back to Madras. She also picked up
her trunk and followed him. Marco said, ‘I have no ticket for you.’ Then Rosie
came to Raju’s home. Raju comforted her and said, ‘You are in the right place.
Forget all your past. We will teach that cad a lesson by and by.’ He tells her
that he will make her the greatest dancer. Raju’s mother objected to Rosie’s
presence at her home but Raju says, ‘I am an adult. I know what I am doing’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now Raju has given his shop to a new
contractor. Raju slaps the previous boy as he neglected the shop. Then the
boy’s father who is a porter remarked, ‘It is not he who has ruined you but the
saithan inside. He meant Rosie. There is a quarrel between the porter and Raju
and Raju is saved due to his mother.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 8<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju’s creditor was the Sait, a
wholesale merchant in Market Road. He was a prosperous businessman. He was
Raju’s good friend. One day the Sait called on Raju and he personally came to
see Raju. He opened his notebook and told Raju the figure of dues nearly eight
thousand rupee. There is a hot argument between Raju and Sait and within a week
or ten days there is a criminal suit against Raju. He looks out for a lawyer to
fight out the case. With the help of Gaffur he finds an adjournment expert.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju thinks of starting a new life
with Rosie as a public dancer. He needed five hundred rupees to start the new
business. He thought of Rosie as a gold mine as the Bharat Natyam is really the
greatest art business. He asks Gaffur to help him. Gaffur was essentially a man
of heart but he had no money. He advised Raju to send Rosie away and start an
ordinary real life. He prayed God to give him better sense and went away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sait is bringing a criminal motive
to quicken the procedure. Raju had a small lawyer to plead his case. Raju gives
him five rupees. He manages to get an adjournment for Raju. Rosie is not
interested in this case. Now it is Raju’s mother’s turn. She had adjusted to
Raju’s behaviour as a loafer. One day Raju’s maternal uncle dropped in like a
bolt from the blue. He was a general advisor and director of all family matters
in Raju’s household. Raju’s mother wanted him to marry her elder brother’s
daughter. Raju’s maternal uncle took him to task and asked Rosie to go away by
the next train. Raju’s mother called her a serpent and a viper. Now, out of
anger, Raju’s mother prepares to leave the house. Raju and Rosie pleaded her
not to go. But Raju’s mother went away with her brother after the quarrel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now Rosie starts a new phase of her
career. As a public dancer she has been christened as Nalini, a name that could
have significance, poetry, and universality. Raju becomes a man with a mission.
He is on the road to become an impresario. He ceases to be the old Railway
Raju. When the two men Management Committee of the Secretary and the Treasurer
came to Raju’s house to watch Rosie’s Bharat Natyam dancing, Rosie welcomes
them with a smile.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 9<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Union function started and Rosie
soared Rocket-like. Her name became a public property. She had the genius in
her, and the public had to take its notice. Raju adapts himself into a
businesslike impresario. He is now conferring favour on them by permitting the
dancing programmes. The people try to catch a glimpse of Rosie. She is so
grateful to Raju for her success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now Raju is unwilling to stay in his
old house. He rents one at New Extension in keeping with their status. Now
Rosie had a ‘dance master’, a man from Koppal. Raju has appointed a large staff
of servants- a car driver, two gardeners, a Gurakha sentry and two cooks.
Raju’s office was on the ground floor with a secretary in- waiting, a young
graduate from a local college.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There were several visitors to them.
There were musicians who wanted a chance to accompany Nalini. There were others
with genuine offers of engagement. But Raju had a monopoly of her and
told the visitors that she was busy. However, there was Raju’s inner circle of
friend consisting of two judges, four eminent politicians, two big textile
mill-owners, a banker, a municipal councilor, and the editor of The Truth, a
weekly. Sometimes there were musicians or actors around Nalini. Raju wanted her
to be happy but only in his company.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now there engagements took them to
all corners of South India, with Cape Comorin at one end and the border of
Bombay at the other. Raju’s philosophy was centred upon all the money in the
world. Raju obtained a medical certificate to say that he needed alcohol for
his welfare and became a ‘permit-holder’. Raju played Three- Cards with some
men. He now became a man of status.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One day the book entitled The
Cultural History of South India arrived by post. Marco was its author who had
acknowledged his debt to Sri Raju of Malgudi Railway Station. Raju did not show
that book to Rosie and it was his horrible mistake. If he had shown the book to
Rosie, everything would have been well. Raju had committed an act of treachery
and betrayal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Three days later Marco’s photograph
appeared n The Illustrated Weekly of Bombay. Marco’s photograph was published
along with a review of his book, and the book was called, ‘An epoch- making
discovery in Indian cultural history’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rosie wanted to see Marco’s book.
She called Raju’s secretary, Mani and asked him for the book. Meanwhile Rosie
had cut out Marco’s photo and placed it on her dressing mirror. Rosie asked
Raju, ‘Where have you kept the book?’ Raju said, ‘All right, I will show it to
you tomorrow’. Raju explained her that Mani was responsible for that mistake.
At night, Rosie said, ‘After all, after all, he is my husband.’ But Raju takes
everything lightly and talks about his role in making Rosie the great classical
dancer, the figure of name and fame.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suddenly a letter arrives from
Marco’s lawyer in Madras. A letter was addressed to ‘Rosie alias Nalini’. The
content in the letter was ‘Madam, under instruction from our client, we are
enclosing an application for your signature, for the release of a box of
jewellery left in safe custody at the Bank of --------, in the marked place’.
Raju did not show this letter to Rosie. He put that letter to his drink casket
and locked it up. He thought over the letter for some time. He was in a dilemma
whether to show the letter to Rosie or not. She also never asked for it. He
thought about the quantity of jewellery in the box. At midnight, he once again
saw the letter, and made a careful trial of Rosie’s signature and forged this
letter after some struggle in his mind and posted it at seven-thirty in the
morning. He now waits for the insured packet to come in return of the letter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Their programme was going on at
Kalipet, a small town sixty miles away. Two hours passed and Rosie was doing
her fifth item- a snake dance that lasted for forty- five minutes. When the
dance was going on, there came the District Superintendent of Police asking for
Raju. He is there with a warrant of Raju’s arrest on the act of forgery. Rosie
blamed for ‘karma’ and said, ‘He was no longer my friend, but a frightful
technician’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 10<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju has to spend a couple of days
in the lock up. Rosie spent much money to save Raju but in vain. Then Raju got
the bail. But finally, the case is lost by him and he is in jail. In jail, he
becomes a model prisoner. Mani came to visit him. Raju told him that the
Central jail is not a bad place. Mani gave him the news that Nalini had cleared
out all the financial transaction of the town, bag and baggage. She had settled
down at Madras and was looking after herself quite well. She had given Mani a
gift one thousand rupees on the day of her departure. Before her departure, she
had paid all the debts. She had sold all the furniture and other possessions to
an auctioneer. She carried with her only Marco’s book and went away into the
car. Mani also told Raju that his mother is keeping well in the village.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chapter 11<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju’s narration of his past to
Velan was over at the dawn. Raju had mentioned every detail of his career from
his birth to his release from the jail. Velan questioned Raju, ‘I don’t know
why you tell me this, entire Swami’. However, he assured Swami that he will
keep it all a secret and went away to the village.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A wandering newspaper correspondent
who had come to the village to observe the draught situations sent off a wire
to his paper at Madras to circulate the news in all towns of India. The heading
was ‘Holy man’s penance to end the draught’. He sent a second telegram to say,
‘Fifth day of fast.’ He described how the swami came to the river’s edge, faced
its source, and stood knee-deep in water from six to eight in the morning,
uttering some prayer. Then the holy man would go back to the pillared hall of
the temple. There was a big crowd around him. He fasted totally. After
meditation, he would go to sleep and his devotees remain there, guarding him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It was the fourth day of his fast.
At the end of the first day, late at night, he went into his inner sanctum and
ate the remaining food hastily. After that the vessel was empty. Raju felt that
Velan was responsible for his present plight. The villagers have killed the
crocodile and found in it the jewellery worth Rs.10000/-.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raju made the resolution that he
would give up all his thoughts of food for the next ten days. For the first
time in his life he was making an earnest effort. For the first time he was
learning the thrill of full application, outside money and love. It gave him a
new strength to go through with the ordeal. He had been fasting to save humanity
from draught. He almost lost all sensations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The special trains for the crowds
were going to Malgudi. The journalist had done their work. Gaffur’s taxi drove
up and down a dozen times a day. The crowd gathered near the river Sarayu at
Malgudi. The public swarmed their life flies. The Health Department came there
to prevent some epidemics of Cholera, Malaria and so on. A large crowd always
stood around and watched the Saint with profound awe. They touched the water at
his feet and sprinkled it over their heads. Velan asked them to go away. The
school master took charge of all telegrams and letters from all over the
country wishing the swami success. The pressmen were busy with their daily
business. The American visitor arrived in a jeep. He said, ‘Namaste’ to
Swamiji. His name is James J Malone from California and his business is
production and T.V. shows. Raju gave his consent. James J Malone asked him some
questions regarding his fast and Raju answered them just like a wise man.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Government appointed some
doctors to look after Raju. American asked some questions to the doctors
regarding Raju’s health but they had no permission to answer. Then the American
asked the school teacher about Raju’s daily routine and the school master
explained him in detail and asked him to see tomorrow morning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It was the eleventh day of fast. At
five thirty in the morning, the doctors declared the condition of Swami. The
government gave a top priority to save the life of Swami. Velan sat very close
to Swami. Raju asked him ‘help me to my feet’. Then he got up to his feet. He
went down the steps of the river. He stepped into his basin of water, shut his
eyes, and turned towards the mountains, muttering the prayer. He opened his
eyes, looked around and said, ‘Velan, it is raining in the hills. I can feel it
coming up under my feet, up my legs’, and with that he sagged down.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-34046814137482487792017-06-15T01:27:00.001-07:002017-06-15T01:32:26.053-07:00British Literature I: Revised University Syllabus BA English (Sem 1)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="Section1">
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BRITISH
LITERATURE I (CORE COURSE)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit 1: Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Renaissance and its impact on England <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is difficult to date or define
the Renaissance. Etymologically the term, which was first used in England only
as late as the nineteenth century, means "re-birth". Broadly
speaking, the Renaissance implies that re-awakening of learning which came to
Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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The <b>English Renaissance</b>
was a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">cultural</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">artistic
movement</a> in England dating from the late 15th to the early 17th century. It
is associated with the pan-European <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>
that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. As in
most of the rest of northern Europe, England saw little of these developments
until more than a century later. The beginning of the English Renaissance is
often taken, as a convenience, to be 1485, when the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth" title="Battle of Bosworth">Battle of Bosworth</a> ended the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars
of the Roses</a> and inaugurated the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Dynasty" title="Tudor Dynasty">Tudor
Dynasty</a>. Renaissance style and ideas, however, were slow to penetrate
England, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a> in the second half of the 16th
century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance.</div>
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The English Renaissance is
different from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> in several ways. The
dominant art forms of the English Renaissance were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual
arts</a> in the English Renaissance were much less significant than in the
Italian Renaissance. The English period began far later than the Italian, which
was moving into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> by the
1550s or earlier. In contrast, the English Renaissance can only truly be said
to begin, shakily, in the 1520s, and it continued until perhaps 1620.</div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="more"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Renaissance was not only English but a European phenomenon; and basically
considered, it signalized a thorough substitution of the medieval habits of
thought by new attitudes. The dawn of the Renaissance came first to Italy and a
little later to France. To England it came much later, roughly about the
beginning of the sixteenth century. As we have said at the outset, it is
difficult to date the Renaissance; however, it may be mentioned that in Italy
the impact of Greek learning was first felt when after the Turkish conquest of
Constantinople the Greek scholars fled and took refuge in Italy carrying with
them a vast treasure of ancient Greek literature in manuscript. The study of
this literature fired the soul and imagination of the Italy of that time and
created a new kind of intellectual and aesthetic culture quite different from
that of the Middle Ages. The light of the Renaissance came very slowly to the
isolated island of England, so that when it did come in all its brilliance in
the sixteenth century, the Renaissance in Italy had already become a spent
force.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The following are the implications
of the Renaissance in England:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(a)
First, the Renaissance meant the death of mediaeval<br />
scholasticism which had for long been keeping human thought in bondage. The
schoolmen got themselves entangled in useless controversies and tried to apply
the principles of Aristotelian. philosophy to the doctrines of Christianity,
thus giving birth to a vast literature characterized by polemics, casuistry,
and sophistry which did not advance man in any way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(b)
Secondly, it signalized a revolt against spiritual authority-the authority of
the Pope. The Reformation, though not part of the revival of learning, was yet
a companion movement in England. This defiance of spiritual authority went hand
in hand with that of intellectual authority. Renaissance intellectuals
distinguished themselves by their flagrant anti-authoritarianism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(c)
Thirdly, the Renaissance implied a greater perception of beauty and polish in
the Greek and Latin scholars. This beauty and this polish were sought by Renaissance
men of letters to be incorporated in their native literature. Further, it meant
the birth of a kind of imitative<br />
tendency implied in the term "classicism."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(d)
Lastly, the Renaissance marked a change from the theocentric to the homocentric
conception of the universe. Human life, pursuits, and even body came to be
glorified. "Human life", as G. H. Mair observes, "which the
mediaeval Church had taught them [the people] to regard but as a threshold and
stepping-stone to eternity, acquired suddenly a new momentousness and value.".The
"otherworldliness" gave place to "this-worldliness". Human
values came to be recognised as permanent values, and they were sought to be
enriched and illumined by the heritage of antiquity. This bred a new kind of
paganism and marked the rise of humanism as also, by implication, materialism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The impact of the Renaissance on English literature<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Non-creative Literature:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Naturally
enough, the first impact of the Renaissance in England was registered by the
universities, being the repositories of all learning. Some English scholars,
becoming aware of the revival of learning in Italy, went to that country to
benefit by it and to examine personally the manuscripts brought there by the
fleeing Greek scholars of Constantinople. Prominent among these scholars were
William Grocyn (14467-1519), Thomas Linacre (1460-1524), and John Colet
(14677-1519). After returning from Italy they organised the teaching of Greek
in Oxford. They were such learned and reputed scholars of Greek that Erasmus
came all the way from Holland to learn Greek from them. Apart from scholars,
the impact of the Renaissance is also; in a measure, to be seen on the work of
the educationists of the age. Sir Thomas Elyot (14907-1546) wrote the <i>Governour
</i>(1531) which is a treatise on moral philosophy modelled on Italian works
and full of the spirit of Roman antiquity. Other educationists were Sir John
Cheke (1514-57), Sir Thomas Wilson (1525-81), and Sir Roger Ascham (1515-68).
Out of all the educationists the last named is the most important, on account
of his <i>Scholemaster </i>published two years after his death. Therein he puts
forward his views on the teaching of the classics. His own style is too
obviously based upon the ancient Roman writers. "By turns", remarks
Legouis, "he imitates Cicero's periods and Seneca's nervous
conciseness". In addition to these well-known educationists must be
mentioned the sizable number of now obscure ones—"those many
unacknowledged, unknown guides who, in school and University, were teaching men
to admire and imitate the masterpieces of antiquity" (Legouis).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Prose:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
most important prose writers who exhibit well the influence of the Renaissance
on English prose are Erasmus, Sir Thomas More, Lyly, and Sidney. The first
named was a Dutchman who, as we have already said, came to Oxford to learn
Greek. His chief work was <i>The Praise of Folly </i>which is the English
translation of his most important work-written in England. It is, according to
Tucker Brook, "the best expression in literature of the attack that the
Oxford reformers were making upon the medieval system." Erasmus wrote this
work in 1510 at the house of his friend Sir Thomas More who was executed at the
bidding of Henry VIII for his refusal to give up his allegiance to the ' Pope.
More's famous prose romance <i>Utopia </i>was, in the words of Legouis,
"true prologue to the Renaissance.'" It was the first book written by
an Englishman which achieved European fame; but it was written in Latin (1516)
and only later (1555) was translated into English. Curiously enough, the next
work by an English man again to acquire European fame-Bacon's <i>Novum
Organwn-was </i>also written originally in Latin. The word "Utopia"
is from Greek "ou topos" meaning "no place". More's Utopia
is an imaginary island which is the habitat of an ideal republic. By the
picture of the ideal state is implied a kind of social criticism of
contemporary England. More's indebtedness to Plato's <i>Republic </i>is quite
obvious. However, More seems also to be indebted to the then recent discoveries
of the explorers and navigators-like Columbus and Vasco da Gama who were mostly
of Spanish and Portuguese nationalities. In Utopia, More discredits
mediaevalism in all its implications and exalts the ancient Greek culture.
Legouis observes about this work : "The Utopians are in revolt against the
spirit of chivalry : they hate warfare and despise soldiers. Communism is the
law of the land; all are workers for only a limited number of hours. Life
should be pleasant for all; asceticism is condemned. More relies on the
goodness of human nature, and intones a hymn to the glory of the senses which
reveal nature's wonders. In Utopia all religions are authorized, and tolerance
is the law. Scholasticism is scoffed at, and Greek philosophy preferred to that
of Rome. From one end to the other of the book More reverses medieval
beliefs." More's <i>Utopia </i>created a new genre in which can be classed
such works as Bacon's <i>The New Atlantis </i>(1626), Samuel Butler's <i>Erewhon
</i>(1872), W. H. Mallock's <i>The New Republic </i>(1877), Richard Jefferies' <i>After
London </i>(1885), W. H. Hudson's <i>The Crystal Age </i>(1887), William
Morris" <i>News from Nowhere, </i>and H. G. Well's <i>A Modern Utopia </i>(1905).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Passing
on to the prose writers of the Elizabethan age-the age of the flowering of the
Renaissance-we find them markedly influenced both in their style and
thought-content by the revival of the antique classical learning. Sidney <i>in
Arcadia, </i>Lyly in <i>Euphues, </i>and Hooker in <i>The Laws of
Ecclesiastical Polity </i>wrote an English essay which is away from the
language of common speech, and is either too heavily laden—as in the case of
Sidney and Lyly-with bits of classical finery, or modelled on Latin syntax, as
in the case of Hooker. Cicero seemed to these writers a verv obvious and
respectable model. Bacon, however, in his sententiousness and cogency comes
near Tacitus and turns away from the prolixity, diffuseness, and ornamentation
associated with Ciceronian prose. Further, in his own career and his <i>Essays,
</i>Bacon stands as a representative of the materialistic, Machiavellian facet
of the Renaissance, particularly of Renaissance Italy. He combines in himself
the dispassionate pursuit of truth and the keen desire for material advance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Poetry:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sir
Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) and the Earl of Surrey (151<i>77-47) </i>were pioneers
of the new poetry in England. After Chaucer the spirit of English poetry had
slumbered for upward of a century. The change in pronunciation in the fifteenth
century had created a lot of confusion in prosody which in the practice of such
important poets as Lydgate and Skelton had been reduced to a mockery. "The
revival", as Legoius says, "was an uphill task; verse had to be drawn
from the languor to which it had sunk in Stephen Hawes, and from the disorder
in which a Skelton had plunged it; all had to be done anew". It was Wyatt
and Surrey who came forward to do it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As
Mair puts it, it is with "these two courtiers that the modern English
poetry begins." Though they wrote much earlier, it was only in 1557, a
year before Elizabeth's coronation, that their work was published in <i>Tottel's
Miscellany </i>which is, according to G. H. Mair, "one of the landmarks of
English literature." Of the two, Wyatt had travelled extensively in Italy
and France and had come under the spell of Italian Renaissance. It must be
remembered that the work of Wyatt and Surrey does not reflect the impact of the
Rome of antiquity alone,. but also that of modern Italy. So far as
versification is concerned, Wyatt and Surrey imported into England various new
Italian metrical patterns. Moreover, they gave English poetry a new sense of grace,
dignity, delicacy, and harmony which was found by them lacking iil the works of
Chaucer and the Chaucerians alike. Further, they Were highly influenced by the
love poetry of Petrarch and they did their best to imitate it. Petrarch's love
poetry is of the courtly kind, in which the pining lover is shown as a
"servant" of his mistress with his heart tempest-tossed by her
neglect and his mood varying according to her absence or presence. There is
much of idealism, if not downright artificiality, in this kind of love poetry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
goes to the credit of Wyatt to have introduced the sonnet into English
literature, and of Surrey to have first written blank verse. Both the sonnet
and blank verse were later to be practised by a vast number of the best English
poets. According to David Daiches.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"Wyatt's
sonnets represent one of the most interesting movements toward metrical
discipline to be found in English literary history." Though in his sonnets
he did not employ regular iambic pentameters yet he created a sense of
discipline among the poets of his times who had forgotten the lesson and
example of Chaucer and, like Skelton, were writing "ragged" and
"jagged" lines which jarred so unpleasantly upon the ear. As Tillyard
puts it, Wyatt "let the Renaissance into English verse" by importing
Italian and French patterns of sentiment as well as versification. He wrote in
all thirty-two sonnets out of which seventeen are adaptations of Petrarch. Most
of them (twenty-eight) have the rhyme-scheme of Petarch's sonnets; that is,
each has the octave <i>a bbaabba </i>and twenty-six out of these twenty-eight
have the <i>c d d c e e </i>sestet. Only in the last three he comes near what
is called the Shakespearean formula, that is, three quatrains and a couplet. In
the thirtieth sonnet he exactly produced it; this sonnet rhymes <i>a b a b, a b
a b, a b a b, c c. </i>Surrey wrote about fifteen or sixteen sonnets out of
which ten use the Shakespearean formula which was. to enjoy the greatest
popularity among the sonneteers of the sixteenth century. Surrey's work is characterized
by exquisite grace and tenderness which we find missing from that of Wyatt.
Moreover, he is a better craftsman and gives greater harmony to his poetry.
Surrey employed blank verse in his translation of the fourth book of <i>The
Aeneid, </i>the work which was first translated into English verse by Gavin
Douglas a generation earlier, but in heroic couplets.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drama:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
revival of ancient classical learning scored its first clear impact on English
drama in the middle of the sixteenth century. Previous to this impact there had
been a pretty vigorous native tradition of drama, particularly comedy. This
tradition had its origin in the liturgical drama and had progressed through the
miracle and the mystery, and later the morality, to the interlude. John Heywood
had written quite a few vigorous interludes, but they were altogether different
in tone, spirit, and purpose from the Greek and Roman drama of antiquity. The
first English regular tragedy <i>Gorboduc </i>(written by Sackville and Norton,
and first acted in 1562) and comedy <i>Ralph Roister Doister </i>(written about
1550 by Nicholas Udall) were very much imitations of classical tragedy and
comedy. It is interesting to note that English dramatists came not under the
spell of the ancient Greek dramatists "(Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides, the tragedy writers, and Aristophanes, the comedy writer) but the
Roman dramatists (Seneca, the tragedy writer, and Plautus and. Terence! the
comedv writers). It was indeed unfortunate, as Greek drama is vastly superior to
Roman drama. <i>Gpfboduc </i>is a s'avish imitation of Senecan tragedy and has
all its features without much of its life. Like Senecan tragedy it has revenge
as the tragic —otive, has most of its important incidents (mostly murders)
narrated on the -stage by messengers, has much of rhetoric and verbose
declamation, has a ghost among its <i>dramatis personae, </i>and so forth. <i>'.".
</i>is indeed a good instance of the "blood and thunder" kind' of
tragedy. Ralph Roister Doister is modelled upon Plautus and Terence. It is
based on the stupid endeavours of the hero for winning the love of a married
woman. There is the cunning, merry slave-Matthew Merrygreek-a descendant of the
Plautine slave who serves as the motive power which keeps the play going.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Later
on, the "University Wits" struck a note of independence in their
dramatic work. They refused to copy Roman drama as slavishly as the writers of <i>Gorboduc
</i>and <i>Roister Doister. </i>Even so, their plays are not free from the
impact of the Renaissance; rather they show it as amply, though not in the same
way. In their imagination they were all fired by the new literature which
showed them new dimensions of human capability. They were humanists through and
through. All of them—Lyly, Greene, Peele, Nashe, Lodge, Marlowe, and Kyd-show
in their dramatic work not, of course, a slavish tendency to ape the ancients
but a chemical action of Renaissance learning on the native genius fired by the
enthusiasm of discovery and aspiration so typical of the Elizabethan age. In
this respect Marlowe stands in the fore-front of the University Wits. Rightly
has he been called "the true child of the Renaissance"<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE REFORMATION – CAUSES <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Reformation was the greatest religious movement in the
early church. It was a revival of Biblical and New Testament theology. The
Reformation officially began in 1517 when Martin Luther challenged the Roman
Church on the matter of Indulgences. While Luther had no idea of the impact
this would make on the German society and the world, this event changed the
course of history.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN">The English Reformation was
a series of events in 16th-century England by which the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church
of England</a> broke away from the authority of the Pope and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman
Catholic Church</a>. These events were, in part, associated with the wider
process of the European <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, a religious and
political movement that affected the practice of Christianity across all of
Europe during this period. Many factors contributed to the process: the decline
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>
and the rise of nationalism, the rise of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>,<b> </b>the invention of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing
press</a> and increased circulation of the Bible, the transmission of new
knowledge and ideas among scholars, the upper and middle classes and readers in
general. However, the various phases of the English Reformation, which also
covered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and
Ireland, were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public
opinion gradually accommodated itself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN">Based on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>'s desire for an annulment of his
marriage (first requested of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII" title="Pope Clement VII">Pope
Clement VII</a> in 1527), the English Reformation was at the outset more of a
political affair than a theological dispute. The reality of political
differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to
come to the fore.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#cite_note-scruton1996p470-1">[1]</a></sup>
Until the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the Church
that decided <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a>.
Church law was governed by the code of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>
with final jurisdiction in Rome. Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and
the Pope had the final word in the appointment of bishops.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN">The break with Rome was affected by a series of acts of Parliament passed
between 1532 and 1534, among them the 1534 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Supremacy" title="Acts of Supremacy">Act
of Supremacy</a> which declared that Henry was the "Supreme Head on earth
of the Church of England". Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes
now rested with the monarch, and the papacy was deprived of revenue and the
final say on the appointment of bishops.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN">The theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly
Protestant and was a matter of fierce
dispute during the reign of Henry's son <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI</a>. The violent aspect of these
disputes, manifested in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_Wars" title="English Civil Wars">English Civil Wars</a>, ended when the last Roman
Catholic monarch, James II, was deposed, and Parliament asked <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_and_Mary" title="William and Mary">William
and Mary</a> to rule jointly in conjunction with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Bill_of_Rights" title="English Bill of Rights">English Bill of Rights</a> in 1688 (in the
"<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>"). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> “There
are two leading aspects in which the Reformation, viewed as a whole, may be
regarded; the one more external and negative, and the other more intrinsic and
positive. In the first aspect it was a great revolt against the see of Rome,
and against the authority of the church and of churchmen in religious matters,
combined with an assertion of the exclusive authority of the Bible, and of the
right of all men to examine and interpret it for themselves. In the second and
more important and positive aspect, the Reformation was the proclamation and
inculcation, upon the alleged authority of Scripture, of certain views in
regard to the substance of Christianity or the way of salvation, and in regard
to the organization and ordinances of the Christian church” (William
Cunningham, <i>The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation</i>). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is impossible to understand
modern history apart from the Reformation. We cannot understand the
history of Europe, England or America without studying the Reformation.
For example, in America there would never have been Pilgrim Fathers if
there had not first been a Protestant Reformation. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Reformation has profoundly
affected the modern view of politics and law. Prior to the Reformation the
Church governed politics; she controlled emperors and kings and governed
the law of lands. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The meaning of much western
literature is really quite meaningless apart from an understanding of the
Reformation. Moreover, for all practical purposes Martin Luther stabilized
the German language. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the realm of science, it is
generally granted by modern historians that there never would have been
modern science were it not for the Reformation. All scientific
investigation and endeavor prior to that had been controlled by the
church. Only through sheer ignorance of history do many modern scientists
believe that Protestantism, the true evangelical faith, opposes true
science. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Reformation laid down once
and for all the right and obligation of the individual conscience, and the
right to follow the dictates of that individual conscience. Many men who
talk lightly and glibly about “liberty” neither know nor realize that they
owe their liberty to this event. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
</ol>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 22.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 30.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.5pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Commonwealth of Nations<span class="smallprint80"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h1>
<div class="intro" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 22.5pt; text-align: justify;">
After the execution
of King Charles I, a republican government in London attempts to govern the
entire British Isles—until thrown out by Oliver Cromwell. After the
purge carried out by elements of the New Model Army in 1648, the Long
Parliament was left with a small number of MPs approved by the radicals. This
later became known as the Rump Parliament. Members of the Rump set up the High
Court of Justice, which presided over the trial and execution of King Charles
in January 1649. After the King's execution, the Rump abolished the monarchy
and the House of Lords. The Council of State was appointed as an executive
body, which was subordinate to the legislative House of Commons. England was
declared a republican "Commonwealth and Free State" in May 1649.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
During the early
1650s, attempts were made to incorporate Scotland and Ireland into the
Commonwealth with England so that the three nations were ruled by a central
government for the first time in British history. After the subjugation of the
British Isles, the Commonwealth government adopted an aggressive foreign policy
based upon naval power which forced reluctant European nations to recognise the
legitimacy of the Commonwealth.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
The
Commonwealth relied upon the Army to maintain its authority at home, but
tensions developed between senior officers led by Oliver Cromwell and civilian
politicians led by Sir Henry Vane over the form the government should take. In
April 1653, Cromwell led a body of soldiers to forcibly expel MPs of the Rump
Parliament from the House of Commons. The Rump was replaced by the short-lived
Nominated Assembly, which split into opposing factions and voluntarily
surrendered its powers to Cromwell in December 1653.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">RESTORATION <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Restoration, in English history, is the
re establishment of the monarchy on the accession (1660) of <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Charles2Eng.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Charles II</span></a>
after the collapse of the Commonwealth
and the <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Protecto.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Protectorate</span></a>.
The term is often used to refer to the entire period from 1660 to the fall of <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-James2Eng.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">James II</span></a>
in 1688, and in English literature the Restoration period (often called the age
of Dryden) is commonly viewed as extending from 1660 to the death of John
Dryden in 1700. <br />
<br />
After the death of Oliver <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-CromwellO.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Cromwell</span></a>
in Sept., 1658, the English republican experiment soon faltered. Cromwell's son
and successor, Richard, was an ineffectual leader, and power quickly fell into
the hands of the generals, chief among whom was George <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Monck.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Monck</span></a>, leader of the army
of occupation in Scotland. In England a strong reaction had set in against
Puritan supremacy and military control. When Monck marched on London with his
army, opinion had already crystallized in favor of recalling the exiled king.<br />
<br />
Monck recalled to the Rump Parliament the members who had been excluded by
Pride's Purge in 1648; the reconvened body voted its own dissolution. The newly
elected Convention Parliament, which met in the spring of 1660, was overtly
royalist in sympathy. An emissary was sent to the Netherlands, and Charles was
easily persuaded to issue the document known as the Declaration of Breda,
promising an amnesty to the former enemies of the house of Stuart and
guaranteeing religious toleration and payment of arrears in salary to the army.
Charles accepted the subsequent invitation to return to England and landed at
Dover on May 25, 1660, entering London amid rejoicing four days later. <br />
<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Politics under Charles II and James
II</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
Control of policy fell to Charles's inner circle of old Cavalier supporters,
notably to Edward Hyde, 1st earl of <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-ClarendoE.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Clarendon</span></a>,
who was eventually superseded by a group known as the <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Cabal.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Cabal</span></a>. The last remnants
of military republicanism, as exemplified in the <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-FifthMon.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Fifth
Monarchy Men</span></a>, were violently suppressed, and persecution spread to
include the Quakers. The Cavalier Parliament, which assembled in 1661, restored
a militant Anglicanism (see <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-ClarendoCd.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Clarendon
Code</span></a>), and Charles attempted, although cautiously, to reassert the
old absolutist position of the earlier Stuarts.<br />
<br />
The crown, however, was still dependent upon Parliament for its finances. The
unwillingness of Charles and his successor, James II, to accept the
implications of this dependency had some part in bringing about the deposition
(1688) of James II, who was hated as a Roman Catholic as well as a suspected
absolutist. The <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Glorious.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Glorious
Revolution</span></a> gave the throne to <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Will3Eng.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">William III</span></a>
and <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Mary2.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Mary II</span></a>.
<br />
<br />
<b>England during the Restoration</b><br />
<br />
The Restoration period was marked by an advance in colonization and overseas
trade, by the Dutch Wars, by the great plague (1665) and the great fire of
London (1666), by the birth of the Whig and Tory parties, and by the Popish
Plot and other manifestations of anti-Catholicism. In literature perhaps the
most outstanding result of the Restoration was the reopening of the theaters,
which had been closed since 1642, and a consequent great revival of the drama
(see <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Englsh-lit.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">English
literature</span></a>). The drama of the period was marked by brilliance of wit
and by licentiousness, which may have been a reflection of the freeness of
court manners. The last and greatest works of John Milton fall within the
period but are not typical of it; the same is true of John Bunyan's <i>Pilgrim's
Progress</i> (1678). The age is vividly brought to life in the diaries of
Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn, and in poetry the Restoration is distinguished by
the work of John <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Dryden-J.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Dryden</span></a>
and a number of other poets.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b>COFFEE HOUSES AND THEIR SOCIAL RELEVANCE<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
coffeehouse is an important and distinctive social and cultural institution
deeply embedded in modern notions of public opinion and civil society. A
coffeehouse is a business that sells prepared coffee as a hot beverage. After
originating in the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, the first coffeehouses
opened in Europe in the mid-17th century, in London first, and later in
continental Europe and the American colonies. They quickly gained popularity
through the peculiar flavor of the hot drink, with its habit-forming
properties, but also through the distinctive sociability of the coffee room.
This sociability was predicated on discussion and conversation on matters of
political and cultural significance, and was supported by the provision of news
and literary productions in both manuscript and print. Coffeehouses were
recognized as centers of the new urbanism of the 18th and 19th centuries and
were in this way associated especially with the Enlightenment and with
political reform, although individual coffeehouses varied considerably in their
philosophical and political allegiance. While in the Anglophone world
coffeehouses lost some of their cultural significance in the 19th century, it
was in this period that European iterations of the idea (in the <i>café</i>, <i>caffè</i>,
or <i>Kaffeehaus</i>) gained special prominence. In the mid-20th century, the
coffeehouse was self-consciously rehabilitated by the espresso bar trend, and
it has found a new expression within postmodern culture in the much-noted
ubiquity of anodyne branded coffeehouse chains<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
In 17th and
18th century England, coffeehouses were popular places for people from all
walks of life to go and meet, chat, gossip and have fun, whilst enjoying the
latest fashion, a drink newly arrived in Europe from Turkey – coffee.Whilst the
taste of 17th century coffee was not very palatable - indeed, it tasted
quite disgusting according to accounts of the time - the caffeine in it
and the ‘buzz’ it provided, proved quite addictive. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
The first coffeehouse in England
was opened in <a href="http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/Oxford-City-of-Dreaming-Spires/">Oxford</a>
in 1652. In <a href="http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/HistoricSitesinLondon/">London</a>,
the first one was opened later that same year in at St Michael’s Alley,
Cornhill, by an eccentric Greek named Pasqua Roseé. Soon they were commonplace.
The new coffeehouses became fashionable places for the chattering classes to
meet, conduct business, gossip, exchange ideas and debate the news of the day.
Unlike <a href="http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Great-British-Pub/">public
houses</a>, no alcohol was served and women were excluded. Each coffeehouse had
a particular clientele, usually defined by occupation, interest or attitude,
such as Tories and Whigs, traders and merchants, poets and authors, and men of
fashion and leisure.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
Polite conversation led to
reasoned and sober debate on matters of politics, science, literature and
poetry, commerce and religion, so much so that London coffeehouses became known
as ‘penny universities’, as that was the price of a cup of coffee. Influential
patrons included Samuel Pepys, John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Isaac Newton. Anyone
of any social class could frequent the coffeehouses, and so they became
associated with equality and republicanism. So much so that in 1675 an attempt
to ban them was made by Charles II, which caused such a public outcry that it
was withdrawn.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
Several great British
institutions can trace their roots back to these humble coffeehouses. The
London Stock Exchange had its beginnings in Jonathan’s Coffee House in 1698
where gentlemen met to set stock and commodity prices. Auctions in salesrooms
attached to coffee houses were the beginnings of the great auction houses of
Sotheby’s and Christies. Lloyd's of London had its origins in Lloyds Coffee
House on Lombard Street, run by Edward Lloyd, where merchants, shippers and
underwriters of ship insurance met to do business. By 1739, there were over 550
coffeehouses in London. However the coffee house fell out of favour towards the
end of the 18th century as the new fashion for <a href="http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Afternoon-Tea/">tea</a> replaced
coffee. They gave way to, and largely influenced, the exclusive gentleman’s
club of the late 18th century. Revived in the <a href="http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Rise-to-Power-Victorians/">Victorian
era</a> and run by the Temperance Movement, coffeehouses were set up as
alternatives to public houses where the working classes could meet and
socialise.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit 2: Prose <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">On Revenge – Francis Bacon<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 601px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">REVENGE
is a kind of wild justice; which the more man’ s nature runs to, the more
ought law to weed it out. For as for the first wrong, it doth but offend the
law; but the revenge of that wrong, putteth the law out of office. Certainly,
in taking revenge, a man is but even with his enemy; but in passing it over,
he is superior; for it is a prince’s part to pardon. And Solomon, I am sure,
saith, It is the glory of a man, to pass by an offence. That which is past is
gone, and irrevocable; and wise men have enough to do, with things present
and to come; therefore they do but trifle with themselves, that labor in past
matters. There is no man doth a wrong, for the wrong’s sake; but thereby to
purchase himself profit, or pleasure, or honor, or the like. Therefore why should
I be angry with a man, for loving himself better than me? And if any man
should do wrong, merely out of ill-nature, why, yet it is but like the thorn
or briar, which prick and scratch, because they can do no other. The most
tolerable sort of revenge, is for those wrongs which there is no law to
remedy; but then let a man take heed, the revenge be such as there is no law
to punish; else a man’s enemy is still before hand, and it is two for one.
Some, when they take revenge, are desirous, the party should know, whence it
cometh. This is the more generous. For the delight seemeth to be, not so much
in doing the hurt, as in making the party repent. But base and crafty
cowards, are like the arrow that flieth in the dark. Cosmus, duke of
Florence, had a desperate saying against perfidious or neglecting friends, as
if those wrongs were unpardonable; You shall read (saith he) that we are
commanded to forgive our enemies; but you never read, that we are commanded
to forgive our friends. But yet the spirit of Job was in a better tune: Shall
we (saith he) take good at God’s hands, and not be content to take evil also?
And so of friends in a proportion. This is certain, that a man that studieth
revenge, keeps his own wounds green, which otherwise would heal, and do well.
Public revenges are for the most part fortunate; as that for the death of
Caesar; for the death of Pertinax; for the death of Henry the Third of
France; and many more. But in private revenges, it is not so. Nay rather,
vindictive persons live the life of witches; who, as they are mischievous, so
end they infortunate.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sir Roger de Coverley at the
Theatre </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(<i>Spectator,</i> NO. 335.)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By <a href="http://www.bartleby.com/209/673.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Joseph Addison (1672</span></a>–1719)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 601px;">
<tbody>
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<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">MY friend Sir Roger de
Coverley, when we last met together at the club, told me, that he had a great
mind to see the new tragedy with me, assuring me at the same time, that he
had not been at a play these twenty years. The last I saw, said Sir Roger,
was the<i>Committee</i> which I should not have gone to neither, had not
I been told beforehand that it was a good Church-of-England comedy. He then
proceeded to enquire of me who this distrest mother was; and upon hearing
that she was Hector’s widow, he told me that her husband was a brave man, and
that when he was a school-boy he had read his life at the end of the
dictionary. My friend asked me, in the next place, if there would not be some
danger in coming home late, in case the Mohocks should be abroad. I assure
you, says he, I thought I had fallen into their hands last night; for I
observed two or three lusty black men that followed me half way up Fleet
Street, and mended their pace behind me, in proportion as I put on to get
away from them. You must know, continued the knight with a smile, I fancied
they had a mind to hunt me; for I remember an honest gentleman in my
neighbourhood, who was served such a trick in King Charles the Second’s time;
for which reason he has not ventured himself in town ever since. I might have
shown them very good sport, had this been their design; for as I am an old
fox-hunter, I should have turned and dodged, and have played them a thousand
tricks they had never seen in their lives before. Sir Roger added, that if
these gentlemen had any such intention, they did not succeed very well in it:
for I threw them out, says he, at the end of Norfolk Street, where I doubled
the corner, and got shelter in my lodgings before they could imagine what was
become of me. However, says the knight, if Captain Sentry will make one with
us to-morrow night, and if you will both of you call upon me about four
a-clock, that we may be at the house before it is full, I will have my own
coach in readiness to attend you, for John tells me he has got the
fore-wheels mended.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="1"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Captain, who did
not fail to meet me there at the appointed hour, bid Sir Roger fear nothing,
for that he had put on the same sword which he made use of at the battle of
Steenkirk. Sir Roger’s servants, and among the rest my old friend the butler,
had, I found, provided themselves with good oaken plants, to attend their
master upon this occasion. When we had placed him in his coach, with myself
at his left-hand, the captain before him, and his butler at the head of his
footmen in the rear, we convoy’d him in safety to the play-house, where,
after having marched up the entry in good order, the captain and I went in
with him, and seated him betwixt us in the pit. As soon as the house was
full, and the candles lighted, my old friend stood up and looked about him
with that pleasure, which a mind seasoned with humanity naturally feels in
its self, at the sight of a multitude of people who seem pleased with one
another, and partake of the same common entertainment. I could not but fancy
to myself, as the old man stood up in the middle of the pit, that he made a
very proper center to a tragick audience. Upon the entering of Pyrrhus, the
knight told me, that he did not believe the King of France himself had a
better strut. I was indeed very attentive to my old friend’s remarks, because
I looked upon them as a piece of natural criticism, and was well pleased to
hear him at the conclusion of almost every scene, telling me that he could
not imagine how the play would end. One while he appeared much concerned for
Andromache; and a little while after as much for Hermione: and he was
extremely puzzled to think what would become of Pyrrhus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="2"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When Sir Roger saw
Adromache’s obstinate refusal to her lover’s importunities, he whispered me
in the ear, that he was sure she would never have him; to which he added with
a more than ordinary vehemence, you can’t imagine, sir, what ’tis to have to
do with a widow. Upon Pyrrhus his threatening afterwards to leave her, the
knight shook his head, and muttered to himself, ay, do if you can. This part dwelt
so much upon my friend’s imagination, that at the close of the third act, as
I was thinking of something else, he whispered in my ear, these widows, sir,
are the most perverse creatures in the world. But pray, says he, you that are
a critick, is this play according to your dramatick rules, as you call them?
Should your people in tragedy always talk to be understood? Why, there is not
a single sentence in this play that I do not know the meaning of.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="3"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 3</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The fourth act very
luckily began before I had time to give the old gentleman an answer: Well,
says the knight, sitting down with great satisfaction, I suppose we are now
to see Hector’s ghost. He then renewed his attention, and, from time to time,
fell a praising the widow. He made, indeed, a little mistake as to one of her
pages, whom at his first entering, he took for Astyanax; but he quickly set
himself right in that particular, though, at the same time, he owned he
should have been very glad to have seen the little boy, who, says he, must
needs be a very fine child by the account that is given of him. Upon
Hermione’s going off with a menace to Pyrrhus, the audience gave a loud clap;
to which Sir Roger added, On my word, a notable young baggage!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="4"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 4</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> As there was a very
remarkable silence and stillness in the audience during the whole action, it
was natural for them to take the opportunity of these intervals between the
acts, to express their opinion of the players, and of their respective parts.
Sir Roger hearing a cluster of them praise Orestes, struck in with them, and
told them, that he thought his friend Pylades was a very sensible man; as
they were afterwards applauding Pyrrhus, Sir Roger put in a second time; and
let me tell you, says he, though he speaks but little, I like the old fellow
in whiskers as well as any of them. Captain Sentry seeing two or three wags
who sat near us, lean with an attentive ear towards Sir Roger, and fearing
lest they should smoke the knight, plucked him by the elbow, and whispered
something in his ear, that lasted till the opening of the fifth act. The
knight was wonderfully attentive to the account which Orestes gives of
Pyrrhus his death, and at the conclusion of it, told me it was such a bloody
piece of work, that he was glad it was not done upon the stage. Seeing
afterwards Orestes in his raving fit, he grew more than ordinary serious, and
took occasion to moralize (in his way) upon an evil conscience, adding, that
Orestes, in his madness, looked as if he saw something.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="5"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 5</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> As we were the first
that came into the house, so we were the last that went out of it; being
resolved to have a clear passage for our old friend, whom we did not care to
venture among the justling of the crowd. Sir Roger went out fully satisfied
with his entertainment, and we guarded him to his lodgings in the same manner
that we brought him to the play-house; being highly pleased, for my own part,
not only with the performance of the excellent piece which had been
presented, but with the satisfaction which it had given to the good old man<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">\<b>A
City Night-piece </b>From <i>The Bee</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
Oliver Goldsmith (1730–1774)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
THE CLOCK has struck two, the expiring taper rises and sinks in the
socket, the watchman forgets the hour in slumber, the laborious and the
happy are at rest, and nothing now wakes but guilt, revelry, and despair.
The drunkard once more fills the destroying bowl, the robber walks his
midnight round, and the suicide lifts his guilty arm against his own sacred
person.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Let
me no longer waste the night over the page of antiquity, or the sallies of
contemporary genius, but pursue the solitary walk, where vanity, ever
changing, but a few hours past, walked before me—where she kept up the
pageant, and now, like a froward child, seems hushed with her own
importunities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What
a gloom hangs all around! The dying lamp feebly emits a yellow gleam; no
sound is heard but of the chiming clock, or the distant watch-dog. All the
bustle of human pride is forgotten, and this hour may well display the
emptiness of human vanity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 3</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> There
may come a time when this temporary solitude may be made continual, and the
city itself, like its inhabitants, fade away and leave a desert in its
room.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 4</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What
cities, as great as this, have once triumphed in existence; had their
victories as great as ours; joy as just, and as unbounded as we; and, with
short-sighted presumption, promised themselves immortality. Posterity can
hardly trace the situation of some: the sorrowful traveller wanders over
the awful ruins of others; and as he beholds, he learns wisdom, and feels
the transience of every sublunary possession.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 5</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Here
stood their citadel, but now grown over with weeds; there their
senate-house, but now the haunt of every noxious reptile; temples and
theatres stood there, now only an undistinguished heap of ruin. They are
fallen, for luxury and avarice first made them feeble. The rewards of the
state were conferred on amusing and not on useful members of society. Thus
true virtue languished, their riches and opulence invited the plunderer,
who, though once repulsed, returned again, and at last swept the defendants
into undistinguished destruction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 6</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> How
few appear in those streets which but some few hours ago were crowded; and
those who appear, no longer now wear their daily mask, nor attempt to hide
their lewdness or their misery.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="7"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 7</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But
who are those who make the streets their couch, and find a short repose
from wretchedness at the doors of the opulent? These are strangers,
wanderers, and orphans, whose circumstances are too humble to expect
redress, and their distresses too great even for pity. Some are without the
covering even of rags, and others emaciated with disease; the world seems
to have disclaimed them; society turns its back upon their distress, and
has given them up to nakedness and hunger. These poor, shivering females
have once seen happier days, and been flattered into beauty. They have been
prostituted to the gay, luxurious villain, and are now turned out to meet
the severity of winter in the streets. Perhaps, now lying at the doors of
their betrayers, they sue to wretches whose hearts are insensible to
calamity, or debauchees who may curse, but will not relieve them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="8"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 8</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Why,
why was I born a man, and yet see the sufferings I cannot relieve! Poor
houseless creatures! the world will give you reproaches, but will not give
you relief. The slightest misfortunes, the most imaginary uneasiness of the
rich, are aggravated with all the power of eloquence, and engage our
attention; while you weep unheeded, persecuted by every subordinate species
of tyranny, and finding enmity in every law.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="9"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 9</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Why
was this heart of mine formed with so much sensibility! or why was not my
fortune adapted to its impulse! Tenderness, without a capacity for
relieving, only makes the heart that feels it, more wretched than the
object which sues for assistance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="6"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 6</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIT-3 POETRY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Prothalamion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt; line-height: 115%;">By<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> <a href="http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/edmund-spenser"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">EDMUND
SPENSER</span></a></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="Section2">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CALM was the day, and through the
trembling air <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sweet breathing Zephyrus did softly
play, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A gentle spirit, that lightly did
delay <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hot Titan's beams, which then did
glister fair; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When I whose sullen care, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Through discontent of my long
fruitless stay <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In prince's court, and expectation
vain <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of idle hopes, which still do fly
away <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like empty shadows, did afflict my
brain, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Walked forth to ease my pain <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Along the shore of silver streaming
Thames, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whose rutty bank, the which his
river hems, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was painted all with variable
flowers, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all the meads adorned with
dainty gems, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fit to deck maidens' bowers, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And crown their paramours, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against the bridal day, which is not
long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There, in a meadow, by the river's
side, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A flock of nymphs I chanced to espy, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All lovely daughters of the flood
thereby, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With goodly greenish locks, all
loose untied, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As each had been a bride; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And each one had a little wicker
basket, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Made of fine twigs, entrailed
curiously, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In which they gathered flowers to
fill their flasket, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And with fine fingers cropt full
featously <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The tender stalks on high. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of every sort, which in that meadow
grew, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They gathered some; the violet
pallid blue, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The little daisy, that at evening
closes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The virgin lily, and the primrose
true, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With store of vermeil roses, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To deck their bridegrooms'
posies <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against the bridal day, which was
not long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With that, I saw two swans of goodly
hue <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Come softly swimming down along the
Lee; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two fairer birds I yet did never
see. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The snow which doth the top of
Pindus strew, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Did never whiter shew, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor Jove himself, when he a swan
would be <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For love of Leda, whiter did appear:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet Leda was they say as white as
he, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet not so white as these, nor
nothing near. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So purely white they were, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That even the gentle stream, the
which them bare, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Seemed foul to them, and bade his
billows spare <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To wet their silken feathers, lest
they might <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil their fair plumes with water
not so fair, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And mar their beauties bright, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That shone as heaven's light, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against their bridal day, which was
not long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Eftsoons the nymphs, which now had
flowers their fill, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ran all in haste, to see that silver
brood, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As they came floating on the crystal
flood. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whom when they saw, they stood
amazed still, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Their wondering eyes to fill. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Them seemed they never saw a sight
so fair, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of fowls so lovely, that they sure
did deem <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Them heavenly born, or to be that
same pair <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which through the sky draw Venus'
silver team; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For sure they did not seem <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To be begot of any earthly
seed, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But rather angels, or of angels'
breed: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet were they bred of Somers-heat
they say, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In sweetest season, when each flower
and weed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The earth did fresh array, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So fresh they seemed as day, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Even as their bridal day, which was
not long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then forth they all out of their
baskets drew <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Great store of flowers, the honour
of the field, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That to the sense did fragrant odours
yield, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All which upon those goodly birds
they threw, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all the waves did strew, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That like old Peneus' waters they
did seem, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When down along by pleasant Tempe's
shore, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scattered with flowers, through
Thessaly they stream, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That they appear through lilies'
plenteous store, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like a bride's chamber floor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two of those nymphs meanwhile, two
garlands bound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of freshest flowers which in that
mead they found, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The which presenting all in trim
array, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Their snowy foreheads therewithal
they crowned, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whilst one did sing this lay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Prepared against that day, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against their bridal day, which was
not long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Ye gentle birds, the world's fair
ornament, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And heaven's glory, whom this happy
hour <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Doth lead unto your lovers' blissful
bower, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Joy may you have and gentle heart's
content <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of your love's complement: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And let fair Venus, that is queen of
love, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With her heart-quelling son upon you
smile, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whose smile, they say, hath virtue
to remove <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All love's dislike, and friendship's
faulty guile <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For ever to assoil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Let endless peace your steadfast
hearts accord, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And blessed plenty wait upon your
board, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And let your bed with pleasures
chaste abound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That fruitful issue may to you
afford, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which may your foes confound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And make your joys redound <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon your bridal day, which is not
long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So ended she; and all the rest
around <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To her redoubled that her
undersong, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which said their bridal day should
not be long. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And gentle echo from the neighbour
ground <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Their accents did resound. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So forth those joyous birds did pass
along, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Adown the Lee, that to them murmured
low, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As he would speak, but that he
lacked a tongue, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet did by signs his glad affection
show, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Making his stream run slow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all the fowl which in his flood
did dwell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gan flock about these twain, that
did excel <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The rest so far as Cynthia doth
shend <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The lesser stars. So they, enranged
well, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Did on those two attend, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And their best service lend, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against their wedding day, which was
not long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At length they all to merry London
came, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To merry London, my most kindly
nurse, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That to me gave this life's first
native source; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Though from another place I take my
name, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">An house of ancient fame. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There when they came, whereas those
bricky towers, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The which on Thames' broad aged back
do ride, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where now the studious lawyers have
their bowers <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There whilom wont the Templar
Knights to bide, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Till they decayed through
pride: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Next whereunto there stands a
stately place, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where oft I gained gifts and goodly
grace <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of that great lord, which therein
wont to dwell, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whose want too well now feels my
friendless case. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But ah, here fits not well <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Old woes but joys to tell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against the bridal day, which is not
long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet therein now doth lodge a noble
peer, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Great England's glory, and the
world's wide wonder, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whose dreadful name late through all
Spain did thunder, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And Hercules' two pillars standing
near <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Did make to quake and fear: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fair branch of honour, flower of
chivalry, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That fillest England with thy
triumph's fame, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Joy have thou of thy noble
victory, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And endless happiness of thine own
name <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That promiseth the same: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That through thy prowess and
victorious arms, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy country may be freed from
foreign harms; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And great Elisa's glorious name may
ring <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Through all the world, filled with
thy wide alarms, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which some brave Muse may sing <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To ages following, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon the bridal day, which is not
long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From those high towers this noble
lord issuing, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like radiant Hesper when his golden
hair <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In th'Ocean billows he hath bathed
fair, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Descended to the river's open
viewing, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With a great train ensuing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Above the rest were goodly to be
seen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two gentle knights of lovely face
and feature <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beseeming well the bower of any
queen, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With gifts of wit and ornaments of
nature, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fit for so goodly stature; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That like the twins of Jove they
seemed in sight, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which deck the baldric of the
heavens bright. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They two forth pacing to the river's
side, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Received those two fair birds, their
love's delight; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which, at th' appointed tide, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each one did make his bride <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against their bridal day, which is
not long: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sweet
Thames, run softly, till I end my song.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="Section3">
<h1 style="background: #FCF9F9; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="background: #FCF9F9; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -1.5pt; line-height: 115%;">II.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: -1.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Shall I
compare thee to a summer’s day? (Sonnet 18)<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<h2 style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="node-title"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></h2>
</div>
<span class="node-title"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="Section4">
<h2 style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.6pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="node-title"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">By <a href="https://www.poets.org/node/45492" target="_top">William
Shakespeare</a></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="date-display-single">1564</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="date-display-single">1616</span><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou art more lovely and more temperate.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And summer’s lease hath all too short a date.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And often is his gold complexion dimmed;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And every fair from fair sometime declines,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By chance, or nature’s changing course, untrimmed;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But thy eternal summer shall not fade,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor shall death brag thou wand’rest in his shade,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When in eternal lines to Time thou grow’st.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="Section5">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">III.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt; line-height: 115%;">By<span style="text-transform: uppercase;"> <a href="http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/john-donne"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">JOHN DONNE</span></a></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="Section6">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As virtuous men pass mildly
away, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And whisper to
their souls to go, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whilst some of their sad friends do
say <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The breath goes
now, and some say, No: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So let us melt, and make no
noise, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> No tear-floods,
nor sigh-tempests move; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Twere profanation of our joys <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To tell the laity
our love. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Moving of th' earth brings harms and
fears, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Men reckon what it
did, and meant; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But trepidation of the
spheres, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Though greater
far, is innocent. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dull sublunary lovers' love <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (Whose soul is
sense) cannot admit <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Absence, because it doth
remove <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Those things which
elemented it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But we by a love so much
refined, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That our selves
know not what it is, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Inter-assured of the mind, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Care less, eyes,
lips, and hands to miss. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Our two souls therefore, which are
one, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Though I must go,
endure not yet <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A breach, but an expansion, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Like gold to airy
thinness beat. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If they be two, they are two
so <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> As stiff twin
compasses are two; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no
show <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To move, but doth,
if the other do. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And though it in the center
sit, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Yet when the other
far doth roam, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It leans and hearkens after
it, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And grows erect,
as that comes home. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Such wilt thou be to me, who
must, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Like th' other
foot, obliquely run; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy firmness makes my circle
just, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And makes me end
where I begun. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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</span>
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<div class="Section7">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">IV.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Paradise Lost (Book IX, Lines 795-833)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
JOHN MILTON <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
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<div class="Section8">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">O<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">Sovran</span>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">vertuous</span>,
precious of all Trees<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 795 ]</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">In Paradise, of operation<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">blest</span></span><br />
<a href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/pl/book_9/text.shtml"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">To Sapience</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">,
hitherto<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">obscur'd</span>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/pl/book_9/text.shtml"><span class="varspell"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">infam'd</span></span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">And thy fair Fruit let hang, as to no end</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Created; but henceforth my early care,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Not without Song, each Morning, and due praise<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 800 ]</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Shall tend thee, and the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">fertil</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>burden ease</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Of thy full branches<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">offer'd</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>free to all;</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Till dieted by thee I grow mature</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">In knowledge, as the Gods who all things know;</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Though others<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">envie</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>what
they cannot give;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 805 ]</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">For had the gift<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">bin</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>theirs, it had not here</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Thus grown. Experience, next to thee I owe,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Best guide; not following thee, I had<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">remaind</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">In ignorance, thou<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">op'nst</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">Wisdoms</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>way,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">And<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">giv'st</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>access,
though secret she retire.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 810 ]</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">And I perhaps am<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/pl/book_9/text.shtml"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">secret</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">Heav'n</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is high,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">High and remote to see from thence distinct</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Each thing on Earth; and other care perhaps</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">May have diverted from continual watch</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Our great Forbidder, safe with all his Spies<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 815 ]</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">About him. But to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="mi"><i>Adam</i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in what sort</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Shall I<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">appeer</span>? shall I to him make known</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">As yet my change, and give him to partake</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Full happiness with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">mee</span>, or
rather not,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">But keep the odds of Knowledge in my power<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 820 ]</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Without Copartner? so to add what wants</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">In<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">Femal</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Sex,
the more to draw his Love,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">And render me more equal, and perhaps,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">A thing not<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">undesireable</span>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">somtime</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Superior: for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/pl/book_9/text.shtml"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">inferior who is free</span></a><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">?<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 825 ]</span></span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">This may be well: but what if God have seen</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">And Death ensue? then I shall be no more,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">And<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="mi"><i>Adam</i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>wedded
to another<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="mi"><i>Eve</i></span>,</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Shall live with her enjoying, I extinct;</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">A death to think.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="varspell">Confirm'd</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>then I resolve,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="line">[ 830 ]</span></span><br />
<span class="mi"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Adam</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"> </span></i></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">shall share with me in bliss or woe:</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">So dear I love him, that with him all deaths</span><br />
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">I could endure, without him live no life.</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">V.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Rape of the Lock: Canto 2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By <a href="http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/alexander-pope"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration-line: none;">Alexander
Pope</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Not
with more glories, in th' etherial plain, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
sun first rises o'er the purpled main, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Than,
issuing forth, the rival of his beams <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Launch'd
on the bosom of the silver Thames. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fair
nymphs, and well-dress'd youths around her shone, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But
ev'ry eye was fix'd on her alone. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">On
her white breast a sparkling cross she wore, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which
Jews might kiss, and infidels adore. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her
lively looks a sprightly mind disclose, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quick
as her eyes, and as unfix'd as those: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Favours
to none, to all she smiles extends; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oft
she rejects, but never once offends. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bright
as the sun, her eyes the gazers strike, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And,
like the sun, they shine on all alike. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet
graceful ease, and sweetness void of pride, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Might
hide her faults, if belles had faults to hide: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If
to her share some female errors fall, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Look
on her face, and you'll forget 'em all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
This nymph, to the destruction of mankind, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nourish'd
two locks, which graceful hung behind <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
equal curls, and well conspir'd to deck <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With
shining ringlets the smooth iv'ry neck. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Love
in these labyrinths his slaves detains, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
mighty hearts are held in slender chains. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With
hairy springes we the birds betray, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Slight
lines of hair surprise the finney prey, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fair
tresses man's imperial race ensnare, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
beauty draws us with a single hair. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Th' advent'rous baron the bright locks admir'd; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He
saw, he wish'd, and to the prize aspir'd. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Resolv'd
to win, he meditates the way, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
force to ravish, or by fraud betray; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For
when success a lover's toil attends, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Few
ask, if fraud or force attain'd his ends. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
For this, ere Phoebus rose, he had implor'd <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Propitious
Heav'n, and ev'ry pow'r ador'd, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But
chiefly love—to love an altar built, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of
twelve vast French romances, neatly gilt. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There
lay three garters, half a pair of gloves; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
all the trophies of his former loves; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With
tender billet-doux he lights the pyre, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
breathes three am'rous sighs to raise the fire. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then
prostrate falls, and begs with ardent eyes <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soon
to obtain, and long possess the prize: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
pow'rs gave ear, and granted half his pray'r, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
rest, the winds dispers'd in empty air. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
But now secure the painted vessel glides, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
sun-beams trembling on the floating tides, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">While
melting music steals upon the sky, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
soften'd sounds along the waters die. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Smooth
flow the waves, the zephyrs gently play, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Belinda
smil'd, and all the world was gay. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All
but the Sylph—with careful thoughts opprest, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Th'
impending woe sat heavy on his breast. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He
summons strait his denizens of air; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
lucid squadrons round the sails repair: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soft
o'er the shrouds aerial whispers breathe, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
seem'd but zephyrs to the train beneath. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
to the sun their insect-wings unfold, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Waft
on the breeze, or sink in clouds of gold. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Transparent
forms, too fine for mortal sight, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Their
fluid bodies half dissolv'd in light, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Loose
to the wind their airy garments flew, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thin
glitt'ring textures of the filmy dew; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dipp'd
in the richest tincture of the skies, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where
light disports in ever-mingling dyes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">While
ev'ry beam new transient colours flings, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Colours
that change whene'er they wave their wings. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amid
the circle, on the gilded mast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Superior
by the head, was Ariel plac'd; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His
purple pinions op'ning to the sun, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He
rais'd his azure wand, and thus begun. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
"Ye Sylphs and Sylphids, to your chief give ear! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fays,
Fairies, Genii, Elves, and Dæmons, hear! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ye
know the spheres and various tasks assign'd <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
laws eternal to th' aerial kind. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
in the fields of purest æther play, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
bask and whiten in the blaze of day. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
guide the course of wand'ring orbs on high, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
roll the planets through the boundless sky. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
less refin'd, beneath the moon's pale light <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pursue
the stars that shoot athwart the night, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
suck the mists in grosser air below, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
dip their pinions in the painted bow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
brew fierce tempests on the wintry main, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
o'er the glebe distil the kindly rain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Others
on earth o'er human race preside, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Watch
all their ways, and all their actions guide: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of
these the chief the care of nations own, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
guard with arms divine the British throne. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
"Our humbler province is to tend the fair, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Not
a less pleasing, though less glorious care. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
save the powder from too rude a gale, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor
let th' imprison'd essences exhale, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
draw fresh colours from the vernal flow'rs, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
steal from rainbows e'er they drop in show'rs <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
brighter wash; to curl their waving hairs, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Assist
their blushes, and inspire their airs; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nay
oft, in dreams, invention we bestow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
change a flounce, or add a furbelow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
"This day, black omens threat the brightest fair <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
e'er deserv'd a watchful spirit's care; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
dire disaster, or by force, or slight, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But
what, or where, the fates have wrapt in night. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whether
the nymph shall break Diana's law, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
some frail china jar receive a flaw; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
stain her honour, or her new brocade, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forget
her pray'rs, or miss a masquerade; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
lose her heart, or necklace, at a ball; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
whether Heav'n has doom'd that Shock must fall. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Haste,
then, ye spirits! to your charge repair: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
flutt'ring fan be Zephyretta's care; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
drops to thee, Brillante, we consign; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And,
Momentilla, let the watch be thine; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Do
thou, Crispissa, tend her fav'rite lock; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ariel
himself shall be the guard of Shock. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
"To fifty chosen Sylphs, of special note, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We
trust th' important charge, the petticoat: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oft
have we known that sev'n-fold fence to fail, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Though
stiff with hoops, and arm'd with ribs of whale. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Form
a strong line about the silver bound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
guard the wide circumference around. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
"Whatever spirit, careless of his charge, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His
post neglects, or leaves the fair at large, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shall
feel sharp vengeance soon o'ertake his sins, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be
stopp'd in vials, or transfix'd with pins; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
plung'd in lakes of bitter washes lie, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
wedg'd whole ages in a bodkin's eye: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gums
and pomatums shall his flight restrain, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">While
clogg'd he beats his silken wings in vain; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
alum styptics with contracting pow'r <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shrink
his thin essence like a rivell'd flow'r. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or,
as Ixion fix'd, the wretch shall feel <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
giddy motion of the whirling mill, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
fumes of burning chocolate shall glow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
tremble at the sea that froths below!" <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
He spoke; the spirits from the sails descend; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some,
orb in orb, around the nymph extend, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
thrid the mazy ringlets of her hair, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
hang upon the pendants of her ear; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With
beating hearts the dire event they wait, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anxious,
and trembling for the birth of fate. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIT
IV: DRAMA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">DR. FAUSTUS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Christopher
Marlowe: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Born in Canterbury in 1564, the same year as William
Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe was an actor, poet, and playwright during the
reign of Britain’s Queen Elizabeth I (ruled 1558–1603). He produced seven
plays, all of which were immensely popular. Among the most well-known of his
plays are Tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta, and Doctor Faustus. In his writing, he
pioneered the use of blank verse, non-rhyming lines of iambic pentameter, which
many of his contemporaries, including William Shakespeare, later adopted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Doctor Faustus was
probably written in 1592, although the exact date of its composition is
uncertain, since it was not published until a decade later. The idea of an
individual selling his or her soul to the devil for knowledge is an old motif
in Christian folklore, one that had become attached to the historical persona of
Johannes Faustus, a disreputable astrologer who lived in Germany sometime in
the early 1500s.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Doctor Faustus, a
well-respected German scholar, grows dissatisfied with the limits of
traditional forms of knowledge-logic, medicine, law, and religion and decides
that he wants to learn to practice magic. He has his servant Wagner summon
Valdes and Cornelius, two German experts in magic. Faustus tells them that he
has decided to experiment in necromancy and needs them to teach him some of the
fundamentals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When he is alone in his
study, Faustus begins experimenting with magical incantations, and suddenly
Mephistophilis appears, in the form of an ugly devil. Faustus sends him away,
telling him to reappear in the form of a friar. Faustus discovers that it is
not his conjuring which brings forth Mephistophilis but, instead, that when
anyone curses the trinity, devils automatically appear. Faustus sends
Mephistophilis back to hell with the bargain that if Faustus is given
twenty-four years of absolute power, he will then sell his soul to Lucifer.
Later, in his study, when Faustus begins to despair, a Good Angel and a Bad
Angel appear to him; each encourages Faustus to follow his advice.
Mephistophilis appears and Faust agrees to sign a contract in blood with the
devil even though several omens appear which warn him not to make this bond.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus begins to
repent of his bargain as the voice of the Good Angel continues to urge him to
repent. To divert Faustus, Mephistophilis and Lucifer both appear and parade
the seven deadly sins before Faustus. After this, Mephistophilis takes Faustus
to Rome and leads him into the pope's private chambers, where the two become
invisible and play pranks on the pope and some unsuspecting friars. After this episode, Faustus and Mephistophilis
go to the German emperor's court, where they conjure up Alexander the Great. At
this time, Faustus also makes a pair of horns suddenly appear on one of the
knights who had been sceptical about Faustus' powers. After this episode,
Faustus is next seen selling his horse to a horse-courser with the advice that
the man must not ride the horse into the water. Later, the horse-courser enters
Faustus' study and accuses Faustus of false dealings because the horse had
turned into a bundle of hay in the middle of a pond.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After performing other
magical tricks such as bringing forth fresh grapes in the dead of winter,
Faustus returns to his study, where at the request of his fellow scholars, he
conjures up the apparition of Helen of Troy. An old man appears and tries to
get Faustus to hope for salvation and yet Faustus cannot. He knows it is now
too late to turn away from the evil and ask for forgiveness. When the scholars
leave, the clock strikes eleven and Faustus realizes that he must give up his
soul within an hour. As the clock marks each passing segment of time, Faustus
sinks deeper and deeper into despair. When the clock strikes twelve, devils
appear amid thunder and lightning and carry Faustus off to his eternal
damnation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Prologue:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Chorus, a single actor, enters and introduces the plot of the play. It will
involve neither love nor war, he tells us, but instead will trace the “form of
Faustus’ fortunes” (Prologue.8). The Chorus chronicles how Faustus was born to
lowly parents in the small town of Rhode, how he came to the town of Wittenberg
to live with his kinsmen, and how he was educated at Wittenberg, a famous
German university. After earning the title of doctor of divinity, Faustus
became famous for his ability to discuss theological matters. The Chorus adds
that Faustus is “swollen with cunning” and has begun to practice necromancy, or
black magic (Prologue.20). The Prologue concludes by stating that Faustus is
seated in his study.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
1: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
a long soliloquy, Faustus reflects on the most rewarding type of scholarship.
He first considers logic, quoting the Greek philosopher Aristotle, but notes
that disputing well seems to be the only goal of logic, and, since Faustus’s
debating skills are already good, logic is not scholarly enough for him. He
considers medicine, quoting the Greek physician Galen, and decides that
medicine, with its possibility of achieving miraculous cures, is the most
fruitful pursuit yet he notes that he has achieved great renown as a doctor
already and that this fame has not brought him satisfaction. He considers law,
quoting the Byzantine emperor Justinian, but dismisses law as too petty,
dealing with trivial matters rather than larger ones. Divinity, the study of
religion and theology, seems to offer wider vistas, but he quotes from St.
Jerome’s Bible that all men sin and finds the Bible’s assertion that “the
reward of sin is death” an unacceptable doctrine. He then dismisses religion
and fixes his mind on magic, which, when properly pursued, he believes will
make him “a mighty god” (1.62).<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wagner, Faustus’s
servant, enters as his master finishes speaking. Faustus asks Wagner to bring
Valdes and Cornelius, Faustus’s friends, to help him learn the art of magic.
While they are on their way, a good angel and an evil angel visit Faustus. The
good angel urges him to set aside his book of magic and read the Scriptures
instead; the evil angel encourages him to go forward in his pursuit of the
black arts. After they vanish, it is clear that Faustus is going to heed the
evil spirit, since he exults at the great powers that the magical arts will
bring him. Faustus imagines sending spirits to the end of the world to fetch
him jewels and delicacies, having them teach him secret knowledge, and using
magic to make himself king of all Germany. Valdes and Cornelius appear, and
Faustus greets them, declaring that he has set aside all other forms of
learning in favour of magic. They agree to teach Faustus the principles of the
dark arts and describe the wondrous powers that will be his if he remains committed
during his quest to learn magic. Cornelius tells him that “<i>the miracles that magic will perform / Will make thee vow to study
nothing else</i>” (1.136–137). Valdes lists a number of texts that Faustus
should read, and the two friends promise to help him become better at magic
than even they are. Faustus invites them to dine with him, and they exit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
2: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two
scholars come to see Faustus. Wagner makes jokes at their expense and then
tells them that Faustus is meeting with Valdes and Cornelius. Aware that Valdes
and Cornelius are infamous for their involvement in the black arts, the
scholars leave with heavy hearts, fearing that Faustus may also be falling into
“<i>that damned art</i>” as well (2.29).<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
3: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
night, Faustus stands in a magical circle marked with various signs and words,
and he chants in Latin. Four devils and Lucifer, the ruler of hell, watch him
from the shadows. Faustus renounces heaven and God, swears allegiance to hell,
and demands that Mephastophilis rise to serve him. The devil Mephastophilis
then appears before Faustus, who commands him to depart and return dressed as a
Franciscan friar, since “that holy shape becomes a devil best” (3.26).
Mephastophilis vanishes, and Faustus remarks on his obedience. Mephastophilis
then reappears, dressed as a monk, and asks Faustus what he desires. Faustus
demands his obedience, but Mephastophilis says that he is Lucifer’s servant and
can obey only Lucifer. He adds that he came because he heard Faustus deny
obedience to God and hoped to capture his soul.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus quizzes
Mephastophilis about Lucifer and hell and learns that Lucifer and all his
devils were once angels who rebelled against God and have been damned to hell
forever. Faustus points out that Mephastophilis is not in hell now but on
earth; Mephastophilis insists, however, that he and his fellow demons are
always in hell, even when they are on earth, because being deprived of the
presence of God, which they once enjoyed, is hell enough. Faustus dismisses
this sentiment as a lack of fortitude on Mephastophilis’s part and then
declares that he will offer his soul to Lucifer in return for twenty-four years
of Mephastophilis’s service. Mephastophilis agrees to take this offer to his
master and departs. Left alone, Faustus remarks that if he had “as many souls
as there be stars,” he would offer them all to hell in return for the kind of
power that Mephastophilis offers him (3.102). He eagerly awaits
Mephastophilis’s return.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
4: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wagner
converses with a clown and tries to persuade him to become his servant for
seven years. The clown is poor, and Wagner jokes that he would probably sell
his soul to the devil for a shoulder of mutton; the clown answers that it would
have to be well-seasoned mutton. After first agreeing to be Wagner’s servant,
however, the clown abruptly changes his mind. Wagner threatens to cast a spell
on him, and he then conjures up two devils, who he says will carry the clown
away to hell unless he becomes Wagner’s servant. Seeing the devils, the clown
becomes terrified and agrees to Wagner’s demands. After Wagner dismisses the
devils, the clown asks his new master if he can learn to conjure as well, and
Wagner promises to teach him how to turn himself into any kind of animal but he
insists on being called “Master Wagner.”<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
5:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus
begins to waver in his conviction to sell his soul. The good angel tells him to
abandon his plan and “<i>think of heaven,
and heavenly things</i>,” but he dismisses the good angel’s words, saying that
God does not love him (5.20). The good and evil angels make another appearance,
with the good one again urging Faustus to think of heaven, but the evil angel
convinces him that the wealth he can gain through his deal with the devil is
worth the cost. Faustus then calls back Mephastophilis, who tells him that Lucifer
has accepted his offer of his soul in exchange for twenty-four years of
service. Faustus asks Mephastophilis why Lucifer wants his soul, and
Mephastophilis tells him that Lucifer seeks to enlarge his kingdom and make
humans suffer even as he suffers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus decides to make
the bargain, and he stabs his arm in order to write the deed in blood. However,
when he tries to write the deed his blood congeals, making writing impossible.
Mephastophilis goes to fetch fire in order to loosen the blood, and, while he
is gone, Faustus endures another bout of indecision, as he wonders if his own
blood is attempting to warn him not to sell his soul. When Mephastophilis
returns, Faustus signs the deed and then discovers an inscription on his arm
that reads “Homo fuge,” Latin for <i>“O man,
fly”</i> (5.77). While Faustus wonders where he should fly,Mephastophilis
presents a group of devils, who cover Faustus with crowns and rich garments.
Faustus puts aside his doubts. He hands over the deed, which promises his body
and soul to Lucifer in exchange for twenty-four years of constant service from
Mephastophilis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After he turns in the
deed, Faustus asks his new servant where hell is located, and Mephastophilis
says that it has no exact location but exists everywhere. He continues explaining,
saying that hell is everywhere that the damned are cut off from God eternally.
Faustus remarks that he thinks hell is a myth. At Faustus’s request for a wife,
Mephastophilis offers Faustus a she-devil, but Faustus refuses. Mephastophilis
then gives him a book of magic spells and tells him to read it carefully.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus once again
wavers and leans toward repentance as he contemplates the wonders of heaven
from which he has cut himself off. The good and evil angels appear again, and
Faustus realizes that “<i>my heart’s so
hardened I cannot repent</i>!” (5.196). He then begins to ask Mephastophilis
questions about the planets and the heavens. Mephastophilis answers all his
queries willingly, until Faustus asks who made the world. Mephastophilis
refuses to reply because the answer is “<i>against
our kingdom</i>”; when Faustus presses him, Mephastophilis departs angrily
(5.247). Faustus then turns his mind to God, and again he wonders if it is too
late for him to repent. The good and evil angels enter once more, and the good
angel says it is never too late for Faustus to repent. Faustus begins to appeal
to Christ for mercy, but then Lucifer, Belzebub (another devil), and
Mephastophilis enter. They tell Faustus to stop thinking of God and then
present a show of the Seven Deadly Sins. Each sin that is Pride, Covetousness,
Envy, Wrath, Gluttony, Sloth, and finally Lechery appear before Faustus and
makes a brief speech. The sight of the sins delights Faustus’s soul, and he
asks to see hell. Lucifer promises to take him there that night. For the
meantime he gives Faustus a book that teaches him how to change his shape.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
6: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meanwhile,
Robin, a stable hand, has found one of Faustus’s conjuring books, and he is
trying to learn the spells. He calls in an innkeeper named Rafe, and the two go
to a bar together, where Robin promises to conjure up any kind of wine that
Rafe desires.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chorus
2: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wagner
takes the stage and describes how Faustus traveled through the heavens on a
chariot pulled by dragons in order to learn the secrets of astronomy. Wagner
tells us that Faustus is now traveling to measure the coasts and kingdoms of
the world and that his travels will take him to Rome.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
7: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus
appears, recounting to Mephastophilis his travels throughout Europe, first from
Germany to France and then on to Italy. He asks Mephastophilis if they have
arrived in Rome, whose monuments he greatly desires to see, and Mephastophilis
replies that they are in the pope’s privy chamber. It is a day of feasting in
Rome, to celebrate the pope’s victories, and Faustus and Mephastophilis agree
to use their powers to play tricks on the pope.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
8: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Robin
the ostler, or stablehand, and his friend Rafe have stolen a cup from a tavern.
They are pursued by a vintner (or wine-maker), who demands that they return the
cup. They claim not to have it, and then Robin conjures up Mephastophilis,
which makes the vintner flee. Mephastophilis is not pleased to have been
summoned for a prank, and he threatens to turn the two into an ape and a dog.
The two friends treat what they have done as a joke, and Mephastophilis leaves
in a fury, saying that he will go to join Faustus in Turkey.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chorus
3: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Chorus enters to inform us that Faustus has returned home to Germany and
developed his fame by explaining what he learned during the course of his
journey. The German emperor, Charles V, has heard of Faustus and invited him to
his palace, where we next encounter him.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
9: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At
the court of the emperor, two gentlemen, Martino and Frederick, discuss the
imminent arrival of Bruno and Faustus. Martino remarks that Faustus has
promised to conjure up Alexander the Great, the famous conqueror. The two of
them wake another gentleman, Benvolio, and tell him to come down and see the
new arrivals, but Benvolio declares that he would rather watch the action from
his window, because he has a hangover.Faustus comes before the emperor, who
thanks him for having freed Bruno from the clutches of the pope. Faustus
acknowledges the gratitude and then says that he stands ready to fulfil any
wish that the emperor might have. Benvolio, watching from above, remarks to
himself that, Faustus looks nothing like what he would expect a conjurer to
look like.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The emperor tells
Faustus that he would like to see Alexander the Great and his lover. Faustus
tells him that he cannot produce their actual bodies but can create spirits
resembling them. A knight present in the court is sceptical, and asserts that
it is as untrue that Faustus can perform this feat as that the goddess Diana
has transformed the knight into a stag.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Before the eyes of the
court, Faustus creates a vision of Alexander embracing his lover. Faustus
conjures a pair of antlers onto the head of the knight. The knight pleads for
mercy, and the emperor entreats Faustus to remove the horns. Faustus complies,
warning Benvolio to have more respect for scholars in the future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With his friends
Martino and Frederick and a group of soldiers, Benvolio plots an attack against
Faustus. His friends try to dissuade him, but he is so furious at the damage
done to his reputation that he will not listen to reason. They resolve to
ambush Faustus as he leaves the court of the emperor and to take the treasures
that the emperor has given Faustus. Frederick goes out with the soldiers to
scout and returns with word that Faustus is coming toward them and that he is
alone. When Faustus enters, Benvolio stabs him and cuts off his head. He and
his friends rejoice, and they plan the further indignities that they will visit
on Faustus’s corpse. But then Faustus rises with his head restored. Faustus
tells them that they are fools, since his life belongs to Mephastophilis and
cannot be taken by anyone else. He summons Mephastophilis, who arrives with a
group of lesser devils, and orders the devils to carry his attackers off to
hell. Then, reconsidering, he orders them instead to punish Benvolio and his
friends by dragging them through thorns and hurling them off of cliffs, so that
the world will see what happens to people who attack Faustus. As the men and
devils leave, the soldiers come in, and Faustus summons up another clutch of
demons to drive them off.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
9: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Benvolio,
Frederick, and Martino reappear. They are bruised and bloody from having been
chased and harried by the devils, and all three of them now have horns sprouting
from their heads. They greet one another unhappily, express horror at the fate
that has befallen them, and agree to conceal themselves in a castle rather than
face the scorn of the world.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
10: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus,
meanwhile, meets a horse-courser and sells him his horse. Faustus gives the
horse-courser a good price but warns him not to ride the horse into the water.
Faustus begins to reflect on the pending expiration of his contract with
Lucifer and falls asleep. The horse-courser reappears, sopping wet, complaining
that when he rode his horse into a stream it turned into a heap of straw. He
decides to get his money back and tries to wake Faustus by hollering in his
ear. He then pulls on Faustus’s leg when Faustus will not wake. The leg breaks
off, and Faustus wakes up, screaming bloody murder. The horse-courser takes the
leg and runs off. Meanwhile, Faustus’s leg is immediately restored, and he
laughs at the joke that he has played. Wagner then enters and tells Faustus
that the Duke of Vanholt has summoned him. Faustus agrees to go, and they
depart together.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Robin and Rafe have
stopped for a drink in a tavern. They listen as a carter, or wagon-driver and
the horse-courser discuss Faustus. The carter explains that Faustus stopped him
on the road and asked to buy some hay to eat. The carter agreed to sell him all
he could eat for three farthings, and Faustus proceeded to eat the entire
wagonload of hay. The horse-courser tells his own story, adding that he took
Faustus’s leg as revenge and that he is keeping it at his home. Robin declares
that he intends to seek out Faustus, but only after he has a few more drinks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
11: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At
the court of the Duke of Vanholt, Faustus’s skill at conjuring up beautiful
illusions wins the duke’s favor. Faustus comments that the duchess has not
seemed to enjoy the show and asks her what she would like. She tells him she
would like a dish of ripe grapes, and Faustus has Mephastophilis bring her some
grapes. (In the B text of Doctor Faustus, Robin, Dick, the carter, the
horse-courser, and the hostess from the tavern burst in at this moment. They
confront Faustus, and the horse-courser begins making jokes about what he
assumes is Faustus’s wooden leg. Faustus then shows them his leg, which is
whole and healthy, and they are amazed. Each then launches into a complaint
about Faustus’s treatment of him, but Faustus uses magical charms to make them
silent, and they depart.) The duke and duchess are much pleased with Faustus’s
display, and they promise to reward Faustus greatly.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chorus
4: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wagner
announces that Faustus must be about to die because he has given Wagner all of
his wealth. But he remains unsure, since Faustus is not acting like a dying man
rather; he is out carousing with scholars.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
12: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faustus
enters with some of the scholars. One of them asks Faustus if he can produce
Helen of Greece (also known as Helen of Troy), who they have decided was <i>“the admirable lady / that ever lived</i>”
(12.3–4). Faustus agrees to produce her, and gives the order to Mephastophilis:
immediately, Helen herself crosses the stage, to the delight of the
scholars.The scholars leave, and an old man enters and tries to persuade
Faustus to repent. Faustus becomes distraught, and Mephastophilis hands him a
dagger. However, the old man persuades him to appeal to God for mercy, saying, <i>“I see an angel hovers o’er thy head / And
with a vial full of precious grace / Offers to pour the same into thy soul</i>!”
(12.44–46). Once the old man leaves, Mephastophilis threatens to shred Faustus
to pieces if he does not reconfirm his vow to Lucifer. Faustus complies,
sealing his vow by once again stabbing his arm and inscribing it in blood. He
asks Mephastophilis to punish the old man for trying to dissuade him from
continuing in Lucifer’s service; Mephastophilis says that he cannot touch the
old man’s soul but that he will scourge his body. Faustus then asks
Mephastophilis to let him see Helen again. Helen enters, and Faustus makes a
great speech about her beauty and kisses her.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scene
13: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
final night of Faustus’s life has come, and he tells the scholars of the deal
he has made with Lucifer. They are horrified and ask what they can do to save
him, but he tells them that there is nothing to be done. Reluctantly, they
leave to pray for Faustus. A vision of hell opens before Faustus’s horrified
eyes as the clock strikes eleven. The last hour passes by quickly, and Faustus
exhorts the clocks to slow and time to stop, so that he might live a little
longer and have a chance to repent. He then begs God to reduce his time in hell
to a thousand years or a hundred thousand years, so long as he is eventually
saved. He wishes that he were a beast and would simply cease to exist when he
dies instead of face damnation. He curses his parents and himself, and the
clock strikes midnight. Devils enter and carry Faustus away as he screams,<i> “Ugly hell gape not! Come not, Lucifer! /
I’ll burn my books—ah, Mephastophilis!”</i> (13.112–113).<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Epilogue:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
final scenes contain some of the most noteworthy speeches in the play,
especially Faustus’s speech to Helen and his final soliloquy. His address to
Helen begins with the famous line “<i>Was
this the face that launched a thousand ships,”</i> referring to the Trojan War,
which was fought over Helen, and goes on to list all the great things that
Faustus would do to win her love (12.81). He compares himself to the heroes of
Greek mythology, who went to war for her hand, and he ends with a lengthy
praise of her beauty. In its flowery language and emotional power, the speech
marks a return to the eloquence that marks Faustus’s words in earlier scenes,
before his language and behaviour become mediocre and petty. Having squandered
his powers in pranks and childish entertainments, Faustus regains his eloquence
and tragic grandeur in the final scene, as his doom approaches. Still, as
impressive as this speech is, Faustus maintains the same blind spots that lead
him down his dark road in the first place. Earlier, he seeks transcendence
through magic instead of religion. Now, he seeks it through sex and female
beauty, as he asks Helen to make him “immortal” by kissing him (12.83).
Moreover, it is not even clear that Helen is real, since Faustus’s earlier
conjuring of historical figures evokes only illusions and not physical beings.
If Helen too is just an illusion, then Faustus is wasting his last hours
dallying with a fantasy image, an apt symbol for his entire life.Faustus’s
final speech is the most emotionally powerful scene in the play, as his
despairing mind rushes from idea to idea. One moment he is begging time to slow
down, the next he is imploring Christ for mercy. One moment he is crying out in
fear and trying to hide from the wrath of God, the next he is begging to have
the eternity of hell lessened somehow. He curses his parents for giving birth
to him but then owns up to his responsibility and curses himself. His mind’s
various attempts to escape his doom, then, lead inexorably to an understanding
of his own guilt.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The passion of the
final speech points to the central question in Doctor Faustus of why Faustus
does not repent. Early in the play, he deceives himself into believing either
that hell is not so bad or that it does not exist. But, by the close, with the
gates of hell literally opening before him, he still ignores the warnings of
his own conscience and of the old man, a physical embodiment of the conscience
that plagues him. Faustus’s loyalty to Lucifer could be explained by the fact
that he is afraid of having his body torn apart by Mephastophilis. But he seems
almost eager, even in the next-to-last scene, to reseal his vows in blood, and
he even goes a step further when he demands that Mephastophilis punish the old
man who urges him to repent. Marlowe suggests that Faustus’s self-delusion
persists even at the end. Having served Lucifer for so long, he has reached a
point at which he cannot imagine breaking free.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In his final speech,
Faustus is clearly wracked with remorse, yet he no longer seems to be able to
repent. Faustus appears to be calling on Christ, seeking the precious drop of
blood that will save his soul. Yet some unseen force whether inside or outside
him prevents him from giving himself to God. Ultimately, the ending of Doctor
Faustus represents a clash between Christianity, which holds that repentance
and salvation are always possible, and the dictates of tragedy, in which some
character flaw cannot be corrected, even by appealing to God. The idea of
Christian tragedy, then, is paradoxical, as Christianity is ultimately
uplifting. People may suffer as Christ himself did but for those who repent,
salvation eventually awaits. To make Doctor Faustus a true tragedy, then,
Marlowe had to set down a moment beyond which Faustus could no longer repent,
so that in the final scene, while still alive, he can be damned and conscious
of his damnation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The unhappy Faustus’s
last line returns us to the clash between Renaissance values and medieval
values that dominates the early scenes and then recedes as Faustus pursues his
mediocre amusements in later scenes. His cry, as he pleads for salvation, that
he will burn his books suggests, for the first time since early scenes, that
his pact with Lucifer is primarily about a thirst for limitless knowledge a
thirst that is presented as incompatible with Christianity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the duel between
Christendom and the rising modern spirit, Marlowe’s play seems to come down
squarely on the side of Christianity. Yet Marlowe, himself notoriously accused
of atheism and various other sins, may have had other ideas, and he made his
Faustus sympathetic, if not necessarily admirable. While his play shows how the
untrammelled pursuit of knowledge and power can be corrupting, it also shows
the grandeur of such a quest. Faustus is damned, but the gates that he opens
remain standing wide, waiting for others to follow.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UNIT
V: FICTION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
VICAR OF WAKEFIELD<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">OLIVER
GOLDSMITH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">An essayist, novelist,
poet, and playwright, Goldsmith was born in Kilkenny West, County Westmeath,
Ireland. He worked as a writer and was friends with the artistic and literary
luminaries of the time, including Samuel Johnson, James Boswell, Sir Joshua
Reynolds, and Edmund Burke. Goldsmith is author of the essay collection The
Citizen of the World (1762), the novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), the plays
The Good Natured Man (1768) and She Stoops to Conquer (1773), and the poetry
collections Traveller, or, a Prospect of Society (1764), An Elegy on the Death
of a Mad Dog (1766), and The Deserted Village: A Poem (1770).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The virtuous, prudent,
and intelligent vicar of Wakefield lives happily his family, which consists of
his wife Deborah, his sons George, Moses, Bill, and Dick, and his two daughters
Olivia and Sophia. They live a cloistered and genteel life, and are preparing
for the eldest son George to marry a lovely neighbourhood girl, Miss Arabella
Wilmot. Unfortunately, Mr. Wilmot cancels the engagement after the vicar
offends him in a philosophical argument about marriage, and after the vicar
loses his fortune to a shady merchant who proved to be a thief. Now destitute,
the family is forced to move to a more humble area.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In their new
neighbourhood, the vicar works as a curate and farmer. The family sends George,
who had been educated at Oxford, to London in hopes that he can earn a living
there to supplement the family's income. The new area is comfortable and
pastoral, but the women in particular find it difficult to acclimate to a lower
level of fashion than they are accustomed to. The vicar befriends a handsome,
erudite, and poor young man named Mr. Burchell. After Burchell saves Sophia
from drowning, it seems clear that she is attracted to him. Meanwhile, the
family also hears word of their new landlord, Squire Thornhill, reputed to be a
spoiled brat who lives off the generosity of his uncle, Sir William Thornhill,
while living a reprobate lifestyle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Eventually, the family
meets the much-discussed squire, who proves charming, attractive, and amiable.
The vicar quickly forgets his reservations as he notices the squire's interest
in Olivia, and the family begins to hope that their fortunes might change.
Meanwhile, as he anticipates a new social status, the vicar becomes less
pleased with Mr. Burchell's attention to Sophia. He does not want her marrying
a man of no fortune. They lose their simple manners and grow more prideful and
vain as their hopes for Olivia and the squire increase. However, the more they
attempt to present themselves as above their station, the more embarrassments
they encounter. For instance, both the vicar and Moses are duped when
attempting to sell the family's horses in exchange for more fashionable ones.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The squire introduces
the vicar's daughters to two fashionable ladies, who suggest they might find
positions for the girls in the city. The family is pleased, but incensed when
they discover that Mr. Burchell has written a letter ambiguously threatening
the girls' reputations. Because of this letter, the plan to move the girls to
town is foiled. Mr. Burchell is banished from the house. Deborah tries to
prompt the squire into proposing to Olivia, by vaguely threatening to marry the
girl to a neighbour, Father Williams. Though the squire is clearly upset and
jealous by the latter's man presence, he makes no effort to propose, and the
family prepares to marry Olivia to the farmer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">However, right before
the wedding, Olivia flees with Squire Thornhill. This is a heart breaking blow
to the family, since it means Olivia has sacrificed her reputation. The vicar
sets out after her, hoping to save and forgive her. He finds Squire Thornhill
at home, and then suspects Mr. Burchell of the crime. The vicar's journey and
anxiety are taxing, and he falls ill while far away from home. He rests for
three weeks at an inn, and then heads back towards home, meeting a traveling
acting company along the way. When they
arrive at the next town, he meets an intelligent man who invites him to his
home for a dinner party. The vicar agrees, and is astonished by the man's
magnificent mansion. To his shock, however, he discovers that this man is
actually the home's butler when the true master, Mr. Arnold, arrives. It also
turns out that Mr. Arnold is uncle to Miss Arabella Wilmot, who is overjoyed to
reunite with the vicar. Her love for George has clearly not abated, although
there are rumours that she is preparing to marry Squire Thornhill.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The vicar stays with
the family for a few days. In an amazing turn of events, they attend the acting
company's show to discover that George himself is acting with it. Later, George
reunites with his father and Arabella, and tells of his many misadventures
since parting with his family. His many missteps ended with him attempting to
act, and none of them yielded much fortune. Along the way, he had reunited with
an old college friend - who turned out to be Squire Thornhill - but was ruined
when he fought a duel for the squire and was then repudiated by Sir William for
that base behaviour. The squire soon arrives at the Arnold house, and is
surprised to see the vicar and his son there. After some time, noticing the
renewed feelings between Arabella and George, the squire procures a job for
George in the West Indies. Since he has no money and no one suspects the Squire
of ulterior motives, George gladly departs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The vicar prepares to
return home. Along the way, he stops one night in an inn, and coincidentally
discovers that Olivia is there as well. They reunite in a tumult of emotion,
and Olivia explains how the squire seduced her, married her in a fake ceremony,
and then left her in a de facto house of prostitution. She finally escaped his
clutches, and has since lived at the mercy of the innkeeper. The vicar brings
Olivia home, but leaves her at a nearby inn so he can emotionally prepare the
family for her return. Unfortunately, he finds his home engulfed in flames,
with the two youngest sons trapped inside. He rushes in and saves them, but
terribly injures his arm in the process. This proves a terrible blow to the
family, and in light of it, they all easily forgive Olivia, who nevertheless
remains broken-hearted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The family tries to
return to normal, even after they hear of the engagement between Arabella and
Squire Thornhill. One day, the squire finds them outside, and the vicar insults
him. The squire threatens to avenge himself on the vicar, and the next day
sends two officers to collect rent the vicar owes on the house. The vicar
cannot pay, and is arrested. They travel together to the jail. The ladies take
up residence in a nearby inn, while the sons stay with him in his cell. In
prison, the vicar makes a friend named Ephraim Jenkinson, who turns out to be
the man who swindled the vicar and Moses of their horses. He has since repented
for his sinful life, and the vicar forgives him. In prison, the vicar sets out
to reform the other prisoners, eventually winning them over with sermons and
kindnesses. He tells Jenkinson what has happened to him, and the man resolves
to help however he can. They send a letter to Sir William explaining how the
man's nephew had wronged the family. Though both Olivia's health and the
vicar's own health are fading, he refuses to make peace with Squire Thornhill
until Jenkinson brings word that Olivia has died. Anguished, the vicar sends a
letter of peace to Squire Thornhill, who refuses to compromise because of the
letter the vicar sent to Sir William. The vicar then learns that Sophia has
been abducted. Almost immediately afterwards, George is brought to the jail as
a prisoner, after having heard of Olivia's shame and then challenging the
squire to a duel. The squire's servants beat him instead. Horrified by this
succession of misfortunes, the vicar steels himself and delivers a sermon on
fortitude to the entire prison.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After the sermon, Moses
brings news that Mr. Burchell had rescued Sophia. They arrive, and the vicar
apologizes to Burchell for his previous resentments, and offers his daughter's
hand to the man despite the latter's poverty. Burchell makes no answer, but
orders a great feast which the family enjoys until word arrives that Squire
Thornhill has arrived and wishes to see Mr. Burchell. The latter then reveals
that he is actually Sir William Thornhill. Sophia describes the man who
kidnapped her, and Jenkinson realizes who the scoundrel is. With Sir William's
blessing, the jailer gives Jenkinson two men with which to apprehend this
criminal. Meanwhile, Sir William realizes who George is, and lectures him about
fighting. He comes to understand the behaviour, if not condone it, when he
learns what George believed about his nephew.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When Squire Thornhill
arrives, he denies everything. The vicar has no hard evidence to support his
claims until Jenkinson triumphantly returns with the criminal who kidnapped
Sophia at the squire's behest. The plan was for the squire to mock-rescue her
so he could then seduce her. Arabella and Mr. Wilmot suddenly arrive at the
jail, having learned from one of the young boys that the vicar had been
arrested. The new discoveries quickly convince Arabella to end the engagement,
but the squire is unfazed - since he had already signed the contract ensuring
him Arabella's dowry, he has no need of the actual marriage. Though everyone is
dismayed, Arabella and George are mostly overjoyed to be reunited, and plan to
marry anyway.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">However, many great
discoveries save the family. First, it turns out that Olivia is not dead;
Jenkinson lied in order to convince the vicar to make peace with the squire.
Secondly, Jenkinson, who acted as the priest in what the squire thought was a
fake wedding to Olivia, actually and legally married them. It turns out, then,
that Olivia and the Squire are legitimately married, and so the squire is not
entitled to Arabella's fortune. Squire Thornhill, now completely ruined, begs
mercy of his uncle and is granted a small allowance. Once he leaves, Sir
William proposes to Sophia, who accepts. In the conclusion, George marries
Arabella and Sir William marries Sophia. The squire lives with a melancholy
relative far away. The vicar's fortune is restored when the merchant who stole
it is caught. Happiness and felicity reign, and the vicar hopes he will be as
thankful to God during the good times as he was during the times of adversity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Questions:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1)
How does the vicar change throughout the novel?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2) Discuss the novel's
tone, style, and genre. How are each of these complicated throughout the work?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3) The Primrose family
is frequently duped throughout the novel. What makes them so susceptible to
being fooled?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4) In what way is this
novel a satire?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5) How are the events
of the novel similar to those of Goldsmith's own life?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6) Why are the stakes
so high for Olivia's "abduction" in the novel?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7) How does Sir William
fit into the novel's moral themes?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">8) What is the
significance of the novel's title?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">9) One could easily
argue that the string of calamities in the novel's second half is exploitative
and unrealistic. Defend the extremity of these events.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-14271172064369131682017-05-05T23:59:00.000-07:002017-05-05T23:59:02.811-07:00Allied I : Background to the Study of English Lit I - University of Madras: Revised Syllabus BA English (Sem 1)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY OF
ENGLISH LITERATURE – I (ALLIED)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">UNIT I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Elements of Drama</span></b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Most
successful playwrights follow the theories of playwriting and drama that were
established over two thousand years ago by a man named Aristotle. In his
works <i>the Poetics</i> Aristotle outlined the six elements of drama
in his critical analysis of the classical Greek tragedy <i>Oedipus Rex</i> written
by the Greek playwright, Sophocles, in the fifth century B.C. The six
elements as they are outlined involve: Thought, Theme, Ideas; Action or Plot;
Characters; Language; Music; and Spectacle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Thought/Theme/Ideas<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">What the play means as opposed to
what happens (the plot). Sometimes the theme is clearly stated in the
title. It may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the
playwright’s voice. Or it may be the theme is less obvious and emerges only
after some study or thought. It deals with the abstract issues and feelings that
grow out of the dramatic action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Action/Plot<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The plot must have some sort of
unity and clarity by setting up a pattern by which each action initiating the
next rather than standing alone without connection to what came before it or
what follows. In the plot of a play, characters are involved in conflict
that has a pattern of movement. The action and movement in the play begins from
the initial entanglement, through rising action, climax, and falling action to
resolution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Characters<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">These are the people presented in
the play that are involved in the perusing plot. Each character should
have their own distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic
background, and language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Language<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The word choices made by the
playwright and the enunciation of the actors of the language. Language
and dialog delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along,
provides exposition, and defines the distinct characters. Each playwright
can create their own specific style in relationship to language choices they
use in establishing character and dialogue. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Music<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Music can encompass the rhythm of
dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects of the melody and
music compositions as with musical theatre. Each theatrical presentation
delivers music, rhythm and melody in its own distinctive
manner. Music is not a part of every play. But, music
can be included to mean all sounds in a production. Music can expand to
all sound effects, the actor’s voices, songs, and instrumental music played as
underscore in a play. Music creates patterns and establishes tempo in
theatre. In the aspects of the musical the songs are used to push the
plot forward and move the story to a higher level of intensity. Composers
and lyricist work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes and ideas
of the play. Character’s wants and desires can be strengthened for the
audience through lyrics and music.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Spectacle<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The spectacle in the theatre can
involve all of the aspects of scenery, costumes, and special effects in a
production. The visual elements of the play created for theatrical
event. The qualities determined by the playwright that create the world
and atmosphere of the play for the audience’s eye. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Further Considerations of the Playwright</span></u></i></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Above
and beyond the elements outlined above the playwright has other major
consideration to take into account when writing. The Genre and Form of
the play is an important aspect. Some playwrights are pure in the choice
of genre for a play. They write strictly tragedy or comedy. Other
playwrights tend to mix genre, combining both comedy and tragedy in one piece
of dramatic work. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><i><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genre/Form</span></u></i></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Drama
is divided into the categories of tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and
tragicomedy. Each of these genre/forms can be further subdivide by style
and content.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Definition of Tragedy<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tragedy is an imitation of an action
that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude. The tragedy is
presented in the form of action, not narrative. It will arouse pity and fear in
the audience as it witnesses the action. It allows for an arousal of this
pity and fear and creates an affect of purgation or catharsis of these strong
emotions by the audience. Tragedy is serious by nature in its theme and
deals with profound problems. These profound problems are universal when
applied to the human experience. In classical tragedy we find a
protagonist at the center of the drama that is a great person, usually of upper
class birth. He is a good man that can be admired, but he has a tragic
flaw, a hamartia, that will be the ultimate cause of his down fall. This
tragic flaw can take on many characteristics but it is most often too much
pride or hubris. The protagonist always learns, usually too late, the
nature of his flaw and his mistakes that have caused his downfall. He
becomes self-aware and accepts the inevitability of his fate and takes full
responsibility for his actions. We must have this element of
inevitability in tragedy. There must be a cause and effect relationship
from the beginning through the middle to the end or final catastrophe. It
must be logical in the conclusion of the necessary outcome. Tragedy will
involve the audience in the action and create tension and expectation. With
the climax and final end the audience will have learned a lesson and will leave
the theatre not depressed or sullen, but uplifted and enlightened.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Comedy<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Comedy should have the view of a
“comic spirit” and is physical and energetic. It is tied up in rebirth
and renewal, this is the reason most comedy end in weddings, which suggest a
union of a couple and the expected birth of children. In comedy there is
absence of pain and emotional reactions, as with tragedy, and a replaced use of
mans intellect. The behavior of the characters presented in comedy is
ludicrous and sometimes absurd and the result in the audience is one of
correction of behaviors. This correction of behaviors is the didactic
element of comedy that acts as a mirror for society, by which the audience learns
“don’t behave in ludicrous and absurd ways.” The types of comedies can
vary greatly; there are situation comedies, romantic comedies, sentimental
comedies, dark comedies, comedy of manners, and pure farce. The comic
devices used by playwrights of comedy are: exaggeration, incongruity, surprise,
repetition, wisecracks, and sarcasm. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tragicomedy<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tragicomedy is the most lifelike of
all of the genres. It is non-judgmental and ends with no absolutes.
It focuses on character relationships and shows society in a state of
continuous flux. There is a mix of comedy and tragedy side by side in
these types of plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Revenge Tragedy</u></b><u><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
There remains
one further species of tragedy to define and analyze--namely,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>revenge tragedy</i>, a type that
originated in ancient Greece, reached its zenith of popularity in Renaissance
London, and which continues to thrill audiences on the silver screen today.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
In general,
revenge tragedy dramatizes the predicament of a wronged hero. A typical
scenario is as follows: Your daughter has been brutally raped and murdered; but
because of legal technicalities, the killer is allowed to go free. What do you
do? Stoically endure your pain? Or take justice into your own hands?
Examples of the revenge theme abound in Greek tragedy (e.g.,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Agamemnon</i>, <i>Medea</i>)
and in Elizabethan drama (<i>Hamlet</i>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Titus
Andronicus</i>). The theme is also illustrated in numerous Hollywood westerns
and crime thrillers (e.g.,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Death
Wish</i>).<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Melodrama<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Melodrama is drama of disaster and
differs from tragedy significantly, in that; forces outside of the protagonist
cause all of the significant events of the plot. All of the aspects of
related guilt or responsibility of the protagonist is removed. The
protagonist is usually a victim of circumstance. He is acted upon by the
antagonist or anti-hero and suffers without having to accept responsibility and
inevitability of fate. In melodrama we have clearly defined character
types with good guys and bad guys identified. Melodrama has a sense of
strict moral judgment. All issues presented in the plays are resolved in
a well-defined way. The good characters are rewarded and the bad
characters are punished in a means that fits the crime. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Farce</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A farce is a literary<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/genre/"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genre</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">and the type of a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/comedy/"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">comedy</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">that makes the use of highly exaggerated and funny situations
aimed at entertaining the audience. Farce is also a subcategory of dramatic
comedy that is different from other forms of comedy, as it only aims at making
the audience laugh. It uses elements like physical<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/humor/"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">humor</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, deliberate absurdity, bawdy jokes and drunkenness just to
make people laugh and we often see one-dimensional characters in ludicrous
situations in farces</span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The basic purpose of a farcical comedy is to evoke laughter.
We usually find farces in theater and films and sometimes in other literary
works too. In fact, these combine stereotype characters and </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/exaggeration/"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">exaggeration</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">to create humor. Although a farce may appear only funny,
however they also contain deeper implications on account of the use of
satirical elements. In terms of plots, farces are often incomprehensible;
hence, the audiences are not encouraged to follow the plot in order to avoid
becoming overwhelmed and confused. Moreover, farces also contain improbable
coincidences and generally mock at weaknesses of humans and human society.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Masque</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>masque<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>was a form of festive<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_court" title="Noble court"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">courtly</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">entertainment</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">that flourished in 16th- and early 17th-century Europe,
though it was developed earlier in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Italy</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, in forms including the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermedio" title="Intermedio"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">intermedio</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(a public version of the masque was the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_pageant" title="Medieval pageant"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pageant</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">). A masque involved music and dancing, singing and acting,
within an elaborate<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_design" title="Stage design"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">stage
design</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, in which the architectural framing
and costumes might be designed by a renowned architect, to present a
deferential allegory flattering to the patron. Professional actors and
musicians were hired for the speaking and singing parts. Often, the masquers
who did not speak or sing were courtiers: the English queen<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Denmark" title="Anne of Denmark"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Anne
of Denmark</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">frequently danced with her ladies in masques between 1603 and
1611, and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" title="Henry VIII of England"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Henry VIII</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Charles I of England</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">performed in the masques at their courts. In the tradition of
masque,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" title="Louis XIV of France"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Louis XIV of France</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">danced in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ballets</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">at<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Versailles</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">with music by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully" title="Jean-Baptiste Lully"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jean-Baptiste Lully</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.
<span style="background: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The masque has its origins in a folk tradition where masked
players would unexpectedly call on a nobleman in his hall, dancing and bringing
gifts on certain nights of the year, or celebrating dynastic occasions. The
rustic presentation of "Pyramus and Thisbe" as a wedding
entertainment in Shakespeare's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream" title="A Midsummer Night's Dream"><i><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">A Midsummer Night's Dream</span></i></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">offers a familiar example. Spectators were invited to join in
the dancing. At the end, the players would take off their masks to reveal their
identities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">While the masque was no longer as popular as it was at its
height in the 17th Century, there are many later examples of the masque. During
the late 17th century, English semi-operas by composers such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Purcell" title="Henry Purcell"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Henry
Purcell</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">had masque scenes inset between the acts of the play proper.
In the 18th century,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Boyce_(composer)" title="William Boyce (composer)"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William Boyce</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Arne" title="Thomas Arne"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas
Arne</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, among other composers, continued to utilize the masque
genre mostly as an occasional piece, and the genre became increasingly
associated with patriotic topics. There are isolated examples throughout the
first half of the 19th century.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Style/Mode/ “ism’</span></u></i></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Each play will have its own unique
and distinctive behaviors, dress, and language of the characters. The
style of a playwright is shown in the choices made in the world of the play:
the kinds of characters, time periods, settings, language, methods of
characterization, use of symbols, and themes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dramatic Structure</span></u></i></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Dramatic structure involves the overall framework or method by which the
playwright uses to organize the dramatic material and or action. It is
important for playwrights to establish themes but the challenge comes in
applying structure to the ideas and inspirations. Understanding basic
principles of dramatic structure can be invaluable to the playwright.
Most modern plays are structured into acts that can be further divided into
scenes. The pattern most often used is a method by where the playwright
sets up early on in the beginning scenes all of the necessary conditions and
situations out of which the later conditions will develop. Generally the wants
and desires of one character will conflict with another character. With
this method the playwright establishes a pattern of complication, rising
action, climax, and resolution. This is commonly known as cause to effect
arrangement of incidents. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The basic Characteristics of the
cause to effect arrangement are</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="square">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Clear exposition of situation<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Careful preparation for future
events<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Unexpected but logical
reversals<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Continuous mounting suspense<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An obligatory scene<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Logical resolution<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Point of Attack<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The moment of the play at which the
main action of the plot begins. This may occur in the first scene, or it
may occur after several scenes of exposition. The point of attack is the
main action by which all others will arise. It is the point at which the
main complication is introduced. Point of attack can sometimes work hand
in hand with a play’s inciting incident, which is the first incident leading to
the rising action of the play. Sometimes the inciting incident is an
event that occurred somewhere in the character’s past and is revealed to the
audience through exposition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Exposition<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Exposition is important information
that the audience needs to know in order to follow the main story line of the
play. It is the aspects of the story that the audience may hear about but
that they will not witness in actual scenes. It encompasses the past
actions of the characters before the play’s opening scenes progress.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rising Action<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rising action is the section of the
plot beginning with the point of attack and/or inciting incident and proceeding
forward to the crisis onto the climax. The action of the play will rise
as it set up a situation of increasing intensity and anticipation. These
scenes make up the body of the play and usually create a sense of continuous
mounting suspense in the audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Climax/Crisis</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All of the earlier scenes and
actions in a play will build technically to the highest level of dramatic
intensity. This section of the play is generally referred to as the moment of
the plays climax. This is the moment where the major dramatic questions
rise to the highest level, the mystery hits the unraveling point, and the
culprits are revealed. This should be the point of the highest stage of
dramatic intensity in the action of the play. The whole combined actions
of the play generally lead up to this moment. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Resolution/Obligatory Scene<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The resolution is the moment of the
play in which the conflicts are resolved. It is the solution to the
conflict in the play, the answer to the mystery, and the clearing up of the
final details. This is the scene that answers the questions raised earlier in
the play. In this scene the methods and motives are revealed to the
audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Categories of Plot Structure</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Climatic vs. Episodic</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Climatic Structure</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Plot
begins late in story, closer to the very end or climax<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Covers
a short space of time, perhaps a few hours, or at most a few days<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Contains
a few solid, extended scenes, such as three acts with each act comprising one
long scene<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Occurs
in a restricted locale, one room or one house<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Number
of characters is severely limited, usually not more than six or eight<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Plot
in linear and moves in a single line with few subplots or counter plots<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Line
of action proceeds in a cause and effect chain. The characters and events are
closely linked in a sequence of logical, almost inevitable development<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Episodic Structure</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Plot
begins relatively early in the story and moves through a series of episodes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Covers
a longer period of time: weeks, months, and sometimes years<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Many
short, fragmented scenes; sometimes an alternation of short and long scenes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">May
range over an entire city or even several countries<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Profusion
of characters, sometimes several dozen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Frequently
marked by several threads of action, such as two parallel plots, or scenes of
comic relief in a serious play<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SUBJECTIVE AND
OBJECTIVE POETRY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Subject matter which is
supplied by external objects, such as deeds, events and the things we see
around us, and that which is supplied by the poet’s own thoughts and feelings.
The former gives rise to Objective poetry, the latter to Subjective. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In Objective Poetry the
poet acts as a detached observer, describing what he has seen or heard; in the
other hand he brings to bear his own reflections upon what he has seen or
heard. The same subject matter can be viewed either way. If the poet views it
from without confining himself, that is to say merely to his externals, his
treatment is objective; if he views it from within, giving expression, that is
to say, to the thoughts and feelings it arouses in his mind, his treatment is
subjective. Objective Poetry is impersonal and Subjective Poetry is Personal.
In the former the focus of attention is something that is outward – a
praiseworthy act, a thrilling occurrence, a beautiful sight; in the latter it
is the poet himself: whatever the subject may be, his mind is centred on his
own thoughts and feelings. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Objective Poetry is older than
Subjective. The Primitive people among whom it developed , like the uncivilized
races in some parts of the world today, were more interested in what they saw
and heard than in what they thought.They valued the experiences of their eye
and ear more than the experiences of their mind. Deep thinking may even have
been irksome to them, considering that their life was simple, composed more of
action than of thought. Their Poetry, therefore, dealt with deeds, events and
the things they saw around them, and it called for the little mental efforts
from their hearers. At the early stage man has not acquired a subjective outlook,
which is the product of civilization. The Epic and the Drama are the forms of
this objective poetry, in which, as in the ballad, the writer’s personality
remains in the background. The Lyric and the elegy, which belong to later
times, represent the subjective variety.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: 8.05pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Subjective Poetry and
its different forms<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">1) THE
LYRIC</span></b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The lyric:
Its Nature; Its Kinds</span></b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The lyric
is the commonest kind of the poetry of self-expression. Man has always liked to
pour out his intensely-felt feelings and emotion, and hence the lyric is among
the earliest forms of poetry to be written in the literary history of any
people. When moved by some intense emotion, love, hatred, joy, sorrow, wonder,
admiration, etc., man has always expressed himself in a poetic language, and
this accounts for the early appearance of the lyric among all peoples.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In the
beginning, the word ‘lyric’ was used for any song meant to be sung with the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">‘lyre’,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">a stringed
musical instrument known to the Greeks. In course of time this musical
accompaniment of the lyric was dropped and the word came to signify any short
poem or song expressing the personal emotions and experiences of the poet. A
lyric may embody any kind of emotion. SaysHudson</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in this
connection, “a lyric is almost unlimited in range and variety, for it may touch
nearly all aspects of experience, from those which are most narrowly individual
to those which involve the broadest interests of our common humanity. Thus we
have</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the convival or bachanalian lyric;</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The lyric
which skims the lighter things of life, as in the so–called</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">verse de
societe;</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the<i>lyric of love</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in all its
phases, and with all its attendant hopes and longings, joys and sorrows;
the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">lyric of patriotism;</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">lyric of
religious emotion:</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and countless other kinds which it is unnecessary to
attempt to tabulate.” There is also</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the
reflective lyric</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in which the element of thought becomes prominent, and
the poet philosophises on human life and human experiences.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Essentials
of a Good Lyric</span></b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The chief
qualities of a good lyric may be summarized as follows:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">1. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is a
short poem, characterised by simplicity in language and treatment.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">2. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It deals
with a single emotion which is generally stated in the first few lines. Then
the poet gives us the thoughts suggested by that particular emotion. The last
and concluding part is in the nature of a summary or it embodies the conclusion
reached by the poet. Such is the development of a lyric in general, but often
these three parts are not distinctly marked. In moments of intense emotional excitement
the poet may be carried away by his emotions and the lyric may develop along
entirely different lines. A lyric is more often than not, mood-dictated.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">3. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is
musical. Verbal-music is an important element in its appeal and charm. Various
devices are used by poets to enhance the music of their lyrics.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">4. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A lyric is
always an expression of the moods and emotions of a poet. The best lyrics are
emotional in tone. However, a poet may not express merely his emotions, he may
also analyse them intellectually. This gives to the lyric a hard intellectual
tone. Such intellectual analysis of emotion is an important characteristic of
the metaphysical lyrics of the early 17<sup>th</sup>century. Such lyrics are
also more elaborate than the ordinary lyric.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">5. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is
characterised by intensity and poignancy. The best lyrics are the expressions
of intensely felt emotions. Like fire, the intensity of the poet’s emotion
burns out the non-essentials, all attention is concentrated and the basic
emotion, and the gain in poignancy is enormous. It comes directly out of the
heart of the poet, and so goes directly to the heart of the readers. The lyric
at its best is poignant, pathetic and intense.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">6. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Spontaneity
is another important quality of a lyric. The lyric poet sings in strains of
unpremeditated art. He sings effortlessly because he must, because of the inner
urge for self-expression. Any conscious effort on his part, makes the lyric
look unnatural and artificial.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Elizabethan Lyric</span></b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Elizabethan age was the glorious age of the English. In this age everyone sang,
down from the flowery courtier to the man in the street. It was also on the
stage, and lyrics are scattered all over the plays of dramatists like
Shakespeare. The Elizabethan lyric is sweet and musical, but it is
characterised by artificiality as the lyrics were composed because it was a
fashion to write lyrics, and not because the poets really had any urge for
self-expression.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Elizabethan lyric has some well-defined characteristics of its own: (a) In the
best of them there is a fine, “blending of the genius of the people and the
artistic sense awakened by humanism.” The song had always been there, but the
song of popular tradition was unrefined and coarse. In the most successful
Elizabethan lyric, “the rudeness and clumsiness of the popular muse has been
penetrated by graceful refinements of Vocabulary and a pliability of
versification previously unknown to her.” (b) While the best lyrics have a
perfection which is never re-captured, in lesser hands it degenerates into mere
artifice and pedantry. Hence the artificiality of much of Elizabethan lyricism.
(c) Moreover, many compose lyrics merely because it is the fashion to do so,
and not because they have genuine inspiration. They sing of love, without being
lovers, and of nature without having any real feeling for her </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">charms. Hence the insincerity, conventionalism and
affectation of many an Elizabethan lyric. The poets have brilliant fancy but
little passion. (d) The Elizabethan lyric differs from the romantic lyric in as
much as it is not the spontaneous overflow of powerful emotion. It is not the
outpouring of the poet’s soul, it lacks intensity and passion. It is impersonal
in character rather than subjective. The lover is commonly represented as a
shepherd, a device which separates the lover and the poet. The poet seems to be
in love with love itself, and not with a</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lyric. The
poet frequently generalises on the folly of love or the pain or idolatory of
lovers. The happiness of lowly desire, the tranquility of a virtuous mind, the
superiority of a shpeherds’s life to that of a king, etc., are often pointed
out by the poet. (f) Thanks to the prevailing taste for music, the Elizabethan
lyric is very musical. Alliteration and other verbal devices are frequently
used to make the lyric musical. (g) The lyric lacks originality. The poets are
afraid of breaking new ground. They seek respectability for their efforts,
“either by basing them upon accepted classic or by chanting them to hymn-like
airs,” (S.A. Brooke). <i>“In the Elizabethan lyric are blended the aroma
of antiquity and the secret of modernity.”</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lyric in the 17<sup>th</sup> Century</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With the exception of Milton’s epics, the poetry
of the early 17<sup>th</sup> century comprises of lyrics which may be
divided into three categories: (a) <i>the metaphysical lyric, </i>(b) <i>the
religious lyric, </i>and (c) <i>the Caroline or Cavalier lyric. </i>The
metaphysical lyric is more elaborate than an ordinary lyric, and is hard,
intellectual in tone. John Donne, the founder of the metaphysical school of
poetry, intellectualised the English lyric. He also has the credit of writing
some of the finest love-lyrics in the English language. Some of the most
poignant of the religious lyrics in the language also belong to him.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Every one of the lyrics has its origin in some
emotional situation, and as the lyric proceeds the poet analyses intellectually
that particular emotion. The emotion is discussed and analysed almost
threadbare and arguments, for and against, are given in the manner of a clever
lawyer pleading his case. Thus in<i>Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, </i>the
poet advances arguments after arguments in support of the view that true lovers
need not mourn at the time of parting. Similarly, in the <i>Canonisation </i>a
case is cleverly made out in favour of love-making and the lovers are
ingenuously shown to be saints of love. This intellectual analysis of emotion
is something new and original in the English lyric. It results in that fusion
of thought and emotion – that unification of sensibility – for which <i>T.S.
Eliot </i>commended the metaphysical lyric and regarded Donne as one of
the greatest of the English poets. But this argumentation also imparts to
Donne’s lyrics a hard intellectual tone, which is further heightened by his use
of learned imagery drawn from such recondite and out of the way sources as
medieval scholastic philosophy and older systems of astronomy and physics.
However, as Ernest Rhys point out, <i>“as Donne’s lyrics do not lack
emotional intensity and immediacy, despite all this argumentation, analysis,
and use of learning.”</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Caroline lyric is characterised by sweetness,
music and melody. In its diction it almost touches perfection. But it is
artificial, the result of art rather than of an inner urge for self-expression.
Its worst fault is its extremely licentious and immoral nature.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The chief qualities of Cavaleir or Caroline lyric are:</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. The
Caroline lyrics, like the Elizabethan lyrics, were published in miscellanies
and anthologies, as <i>Wits Recreation </i>(1641), <i>Wit
Restored</i>(1658), <i>Parnassus Biceps </i>(1656) etc. The
miscellanies have preserved for us the best songs and lyrics of even the lesser
known poets.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. The
Caroline lyric is the result of conscious effort. It is artificial. It is a
work of art characterised by finish, polish and elegance of language but
lacking that spontaneity and absence of effort which characterised the
Elizabethan lyric. It has formal finish and perfection but is wanting in
natural ease and warmth of emotion.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. It
mirrors the mood and temper of the age. It is often coarse, licentious and
indecent, thus reflecting the coarseness and indecency of the court and the
courtly circles to which most of the poets of this school belonged.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. The
poets of this school again and again find the various beauties of nature united
in the beauty of their respective beloveds.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. The
Cavalier poets are great lovers of nature. They observe nature minutely and
describe it with feeling. Concrete, visual images drawn from the homelier
objects and forces of nature abound in their lyrics.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. The
Caroline lyric is charming but there is something trivial and unsubstantial
about it. In this respect again, it reflects the triviality and frivolity of
the life of the times.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Romantic Lyric</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Augustans used exclusively the heroic couplet and
little lyric poetry was written during this period of over one hundred years.
It was with the rise of romanticism that the lyric once again came to its own.
Shelley is the supreme lyricist of the romantic age. As a lyricist, Shelley
remains unexcelled in the history of English literature. His lyrics are marked
with spontaneity and effortlessness. <i>“He exhales a lyric as a flower
exhales fragrance.” </i>Like his own skylark, he sings in profuse strains
of unpremeditated art. His lyrics are the outpourings of his heart. Says J. A.
Symonds: “In none of his greatest contemporaries was the lyric faculty so
paramount”, and further that, “he was the loftiest and the most spontaneous
singer of our age.” His lyrics are among the most musical lyrics in the English
language.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The excellence which the romantic poets achieved as
lyric-writers seems to have been due to two things. In the first place they
perceived, in a higher degree, perhaps, than even the Elizabethans had done,
the music latent in words, and succeeded in producing in their poetry, by means
of happy combinations of words and rhythms, effects similar to those produced
by music itself. Keats and Tennyson, more specially, were musical artists in
words, and lines like,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Charmed magic
casements opening on the foam<br />
Of perilous seas in faery lands forlorn.<br />
Forlorn! the very world is like a bell,<br />
To toll me back from thee to my sole self:</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">make their appeal to us as much by the lingering
fascination of their music as by the exquisiteness of their pictorial
suggestion. It is in this respect that the romantic lyric surpasses the
Elizabethan; a loss of some of the sunny spontaneity of the later being
balanced by a corresponding gain in power and more complex quality of emotion.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“The success of the romantic lyric has, in the second
place, been due to the fine appreciation, by the lyric-writers, of the delicate
balance subsisting between subject and form. Never before had such a variety of
subject found its way into English lyrical verse and been so completely
absorbed as to give a certain intellectual value and tone to the poems without
in any way detracting from their lyrical worth, Therein has lain, in large
measure, the skill of the great lyricists from Wordsworth to Tennyson: they
have been able to perceive with nicety the degree of thought which the lyric
could carry, and exactly how they could be introduced without damage to the
poem itself. It is, therefore, in their ability to perceive both the musical
possibilities of words and the subtle relationship of matter to form that the
Romantic and later lyricists are superior even to the Elizabethans.”</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lyric in the Victorian Era</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Great lyric poetry continued to be written throughout
the 19<sup>th</sup> century. In the Victorian age, there are a number of lyric-poets
of note, Tennyson and Browning being the greatest of them. Tennyson is a great
artist with words and so his lyrics are characterised by verbal felicity of a
high order. Moreover, he is matchless in his gift of making music with words.
But his artistry introduces an element of artificiality in his lyrics. His
artistic, philosophic and dramatic interests inhibit and retard his lyrical
impulse. Browning, on the other hand, is a great writer of <i>dramatic
lyrics, </i>lyrics in which he does not pour out his own soul, but that of
some imagined character. It is only in a few lyrics like <i>Prospice </i>that
he speaks in his own person of his love for his beloved wife, Elizabeth.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Modern Lyric</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lyrics continue to be written in the modern age, and
it is nearly impossible to make a selection from the crowd of 20<sup>th</sup> century
lyricists. Mention may only be made of John Drinkwater, Walter Do La Mare, W.H.
Davies, James Elory Flecker, John Masefield, and W.B. Yeats. Lyrics of nature,
lyrics of place, patriotic lyrics, love-lyrics, soldier lyrics, lyrics for
children, are some of the categories of the modern lyric, and this in itself is
sufficient to bring out the immensity, variety and abundance of lyric poetry in
the post-Victorian period.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(B) THE ELEGY</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Elegy: Its Nature</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An elegy is a special kind of lyrics. A lyric
expresses the emotions of the poet, and the elegy is an expression of the
emotion of sorrow, woe, or despair.<i>In short, the elegy is a lament, a lyric
of mourning, or an utterance of personal bereavement and sorrow </i>and, <i>therefore,
it should be characterised by absolute sincerity of emotion and
expression. </i>Says Hodgson, “In common use, it is often restricted to a
lament over the dead, but that is an improper narrowing of its meaning. There
are laments over places, over lost love, over the past (which is never “dead”),
over an individual’s misery or failure; there are laments over departed pet
animals, and so forth.”</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Elegy: Reflection and Philosophy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An elegy then is an expression of grief, and
simplicity, brevity, and sincerity are its distinguishing features. There are
elegies which are confined to the expression of grief as, for example, <i>The
Burial of Sir John Moore, </i>and Tennyson’s <i>Break, Break,
Break. </i>But more often than not, from an expression of personal grief,
the poet passes on to reflections on human life – human suffering, the
shortness of human life, and the futility of human ambitions. Writes A. N.
Eatwistle in this connection, “Sometimes Death is the inspiration and sole
theme; at other times it is merely the common starting-point from which poets
have launched various themes – speculations on the nature of death and the
hereafter, tributes to friends, the poet’s own mood, even literary criticism.”
Thomas Gray’s <i>Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard </i>is one of
the most popular elegies in English language. In this elegy, the poet does not
mourn the death of some particular friend or relative, but expresses his grief
at the sorry fate of the rude forefathers of the village, who die in obscurity,
unknown, unsung. It is a magnificent and complex work of art, dignified and
solemn in tone, and not an expression of personal grief.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On the other hand, Matthew Arnold’s <i>Rugby
Chapel </i>is the poet’s direct expression of grief on the death of his
father, and the elegy is characterised by sincerity and intensity of emotion.
But from the expression of personal grief, the poet soon passes on to reflect
on the sorry fate of humanity, and on the triviality and futility of human
life. It thus becomes an embodiment not merely of the melancholy of the poet,
but also of the pessimism and despair of the age in which he lived.
Tennyson’s <i>In Memoriam </i>is a unique elegy in the English
language. It is a collection of over a hundred poignant lyrics, united into a
single whole by the poet’s lament at the death of his college friend, Arthur
Hallam. But along with the expression of personal grief, there also runs a
theology and a philosophy, as the poet constantly reflects on the problems of
human life and human destiny. The elegy is an epitome of the philosophical and
religious thought of the age.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Pastoral Elegy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The pastoral elegy is a special kind of elegy. The
words <i>‘pastoral’ </i>comes from the Greek word <i>“pastor”, </i>which
means <i>“to graze”. Hence pastoral elegy is an elegy in which the poet
represents himself as a shepherd mourning the death of a fellow shepherd. </i>The
form arose among the ancient Greeks, and<i>Theocritus, Bions </i>and <i>Moschus </i>were
its most noted practitioners. In ancientRome it was used by the Latin
poet <i>Virgil. </i>In England, countless pastoral elegies have
been written down from the Renaissance (16<sup>th</sup> century) to the
present day. Spenser’s <i>Astrophel, </i>Milton’s <i>Lycidas, </i>Shelley’s <i>Adonais </i>and
Arnold’s <i>Thyrsis </i>and <i>Scholar Gipsy, </i>are the
most notable examples of pastoral elegy in the English language.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The pastoral elegy is a work of art, following a
particular convention, and using a particular imagery drawn from rural life and
rural scenery. Hence it is lacking in that sincerity which should be a marked
feature of a poem of personal lament. Hence it was that Dr. Johnson condemned
the form as artificial and unnatural and said, <i>“Where there is leisure
for fiction, there is little grief.”</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Elegies continue to be written in the 20<sup>th</sup> century,
elegies in which the poets pour out their anxieties, frustrations and despairs.
Their number is so large that even their names cannot be mentioned in the short
space at our disposal. But one thing is to be noted. The modern poet is
unconventional in his use of the elegiac form, as in other matters. For example,
W.H. Auden reverses the elegiac tradition in this elegies, particularly in his
well-known elegy on W.B. Yeats. Traditionally in an elegy all nature is
represented as mourning the death, here nature is represented as going on its
course, indifferent and unaffected by the death of Yeats. The great poet’s
death goes unnoticed both by man and nature; human life goes on as usual, and
so does nature. Secondly, in the traditional elegy the dead is glorified and
his death is said to be a great loss for mankind at large but Auden does not
glorify Yeats. He goes to the extend of calling him ‘Silly’ and further that
his poetry could make nothing happen. <i>“Ireland has her madness and
her weather still.” </i>Thus Auden reverses the traditional elegiac values
and treats them ironically. Dylan Thomas is another such unconventional writer
of elegies.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c) THE ODE</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Ode: Its Nature</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Ode is a special kind of lyric, more dignified,
stately and elaborate than the simple lyric. Like the lyric, it also originated
in ancient Greece. The Greek poet Pindar was the first to write Odes, and
later on the form was practiced with certain modification by the Roman poet,
Horace.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The word <i>‘ode’ </i>is simply the Greek
word for <i>‘song’. </i>It was used by the Greeks for any kind of
lyric verse, i.e. for any song sung with the lyre or to the accompaniment of
some dance. However, as far as English literature is concerned, the term is now
applied to only one particular kind of lyric verse. An English <i>Ode </i>may
be defined as, <i>‘a lyric poem of elaborate metrical structure, solemn in
tone, and usually taking the form of address” very often to some abstraction or
quality. </i>Edmund Gosse defines the ode as, “a strain of enthusiastic
and exalted lyric, verse, directed to a fixed purpose, and dealing progressively
with one dignified theme.”</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Essentials of an Ode</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">From these definitions the essentials of a modern
English Ode may be summed up as,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. It
is in the form of an address, often to some abstraction. It is not
written <i>about </i>but written <i>to.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. It
has lyric enthusiasm and emotional intensity. It is a spontaneous overflow of
the poet’s emotions.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Its
theme is dignified and exalted. It has ‘high seriousness’.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Its
style is equally elevated; it is also sufficiently long to allow for the full
development of its dignified theme.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. The
development of thought is logical and clear.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Its
metrical pattern may be regular or irregular, but it is always elaborate and
often complex and intricate.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Its Two Kinds:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are two important forms of the ode</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) <i>The Pindaric Ode; and</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) <i>The Horation Ode.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) The Pindaric Ode</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pindar the greatest lyric poet of
ancient Greece (6<sup>th</sup> to 5<sup>th</sup> century
B.C.) was the father of the Pindaric or Choric’ Ode. Pindaric Odes were written
generally in honour of the gods or to sing the triumphs or victories of rulers
or athletes.<i>Hence they are also known as “triumphal” odes. </i>A
Pindaric Ode has a fixed stanza-structure or pattern. The number of stanzas may
vary, but they are invariably arranged in groups of three, each group being
called a <i>triad. </i>The first stanza in each triad is called
a <i>‘strophe’ </i>– it was chanted by the dancing chorus as it
proceeded in one direction. The second stanza in each triad is called an <i>ante-strophe’ </i>–
it was chanted by the chorus as it returned. The third stanza in each triad is
called an <i>‘epode’, </i>and it was sung when the chorus was
stationary. Just as the total number of stanzas in a Pindaric Ode may vary
(Pindar’s odes range from one triad to thirteen in length) so also there could
be variations in the metrical length of individual lines. <i>Thus the
Pindaric Ode has a fixed stanza-pattern but enjoys great rhythmical and
metrical freedom.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Poet <i>Cowley </i>(1618-67) was the
first poet of England to imitate consciously the Pindaric odes.
However, he did not understand the regular structure of the Pindaric and
introduced a verse form with long irregular stanzas without any fixed system of
metre or rhyme. The true Pindaric in </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">triadic form was written with success by</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dryden (Ode to St.
Cecilia</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alexander’s Feast) </span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">and then
by <i>Gray (The Bard </i>and <i>the Progress of Poesy).</i>After
Gray, Pindaric of the triadic form fell out of use till it was revived again
by <i>Arnold </i>and <i>Swinburne.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Though the true Pindaric did not take root in the English
soil, the ode in long irregular stanzas, first used by Cowley, has grown and
flourished and has become one of the recognised and popular verse-forms of
England. The title Pindaric is no longer used for it. But some of the greatest
odes in the English language are of this irregular kind. To name only a few:
Tennyson’s <i>Ode on the death of Duke Wellington; </i>Shelley’s <i>Ode
to Liberty; </i>and Wordsworth’s<i>Ode on the Intimations of
Immortality. </i>In other words the term Ode is now loosely used for any
lyric which is sufficiently elaborate and dignified. No fixed pattern of stanza
or metre is now considered necessary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Horatian Ode</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Horation Ode. </span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This kind of
Ode has been named after the Latin poet, Horace, who imitated Pindar but with
far reaching modifications. <i>The Horation Ode consists of a number of
stanzas with a more or less regular metrical structure but without any division
into triads of the Pindaric. </i>It may be rhymed or unrhymed. This kind
of Ode is light and personal (not choric) without the elaboration and
complexity of the Pindaric. Many of the Finest English Odes are of this lighter
sort. Some notable examples are: Collin’s <i>Ode to Simplicity </i>and <i>Ode
to Evening; Gray’s Eton Ode </i>and <i>Ode to the West Wind</i>Wordsworth’s <i>Ode
to Duty; </i>Shelley’s <i>Ode of the West Wind; </i>and <i>Keats’
Ode to Nightingale.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It was in the hands of Keats that the Ode attained its
highest possible perfection. His odes are the finest fruits of his
maturity. They represent Keats at his best. All the characteristic qualities of
his poetry find full and vivid expression in them. As has been well said,
Shelley’s genius finds perfect expression in the lyrics, Keats’ genius in <i>The
Odes. </i>The six great odes of Keats<i>The Ode to Psyche, to Melancholy,
to Nightingale, to a Grecian, Urn to Indolence, </i>and <i>to
Autumn, </i>have received the highest praises from all critics of Keats.
These odes are a unique phenomenon in English literature . Nothing like them
existed before; and in them Keats may be said to have created a new class of
lyric poetry. They are Keats’ greatest claim to immortality.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Victorian Ode: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Odes continued to be written all through the Victorian
era, and they are being written even to-day. In the Victorian era, Tennyson and
Swinburne are the greatest writers of odes. Tennyson wrote three odes, <i>Ode
on the Death of the Duke of Wellington, Ode for the Opening of the
International Exhibition 1862, </i>and <i>Ode to Memory. </i>Of
these three odes, <i>the Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington, </i>the
Victor of Waterloo, is the most moving and inspiring, and is marked with a note
of patriotism and national adoration of the great hero who won victory
for England against Napoleon. Tennyson pays a nation’s homage to the
hero and outlines the salient qualities of his character. Swinburne produced
fine odes included in <i>Atlanta in Calydon. </i>The
opening ode of his classical tragedy <i>Hounds of Spring </i>is a
glorious commemoration of the joys and triumphs of spring. The poet presents
spring close on the heels of winter, and sings of the glories of the vernal
time.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Another great poet, <i>Francis Thompson, </i>composed <i>the
Hounds of Heaven,</i>which presents the pursuit of man engrossed in worldly
pleasures by the hounds of heaven. Man cannot escape divinity. His final
salvation lies in following the path of morality and spiritual life. The ode is
unique in splendour of imagery and richness of expression reminds us of the
earlier attempts of Spenser in glorious expression.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ode in the Modern Age:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">During the twentieth century many poets have composed
odes, but generally speaking the modern age is not suited for the ode.
Hopkin’s <i>Ode on the Wreck of Deutschland </i>is an ecclesiastical
ode presenting the loss of the German ship with five nuns on board. The ode was
in a new metrical form which Hopkins had been mediating for sometime.
“I had long had haunting my ear the echo of a new rhythm which now I realised
on paper,” Hopkinswrote to <i>R.W.Dixon, </i>his friend. <i>Watson </i>wrote
an <i>Ode to the Coronation of Edward VII. </i>The language of
Watson’s Ode is similar to that of the Victorians. It comes from the study of
Tennyson, Arnold and Milton, and shows no contact with the speech that the
Edwardians used in their streets, their public houses or even in their drawing
rooms and libraries. Watson’s ode does not have the vitality of a living
diction and has a kind of expensive vagueness not expected from an Edwardian.
Rose Macaulay’s <i>New Year, 1968, </i>is an unconventional ode, not
glorifying the birth of a new year, but just telling us that the new year does
not bring new gifts. <i>Upon Eckington Bridge, RiverAvon, </i>by
Arthur Quiller-Couch is an ode singing of the old glories of the past and the
destruction wrought by time. These poets make us feel that the hey-day of the
ode in English are things of the past. The ode may never regain its old glory
and greatness. The term is being loosely used for lyric poetry of every kind,
and not much heed is being given to the characteristic features of the ode.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(D) THE SONNET</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Petrarchan Sonnet</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The sonnet also is a form of the lyric, and of all its
forms it is most carefully ordered and bound by definite, rigid rules.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The word <i>“Sonnet” </i>is derived from the
Greek word <i>“Sonneto”, </i>meaning, <i>“a sound”. </i>It
is a short lyric of fourteen lines and the Italian poet Petrarch was the first
to use this form of the lyric to express his love for his beloved Laura, and
its use “became the mark of Petrarchan love-poetry all over Europe in
the 16<sup>th</sup> century.” Petrarch had divided his sonnets into two
parts, <i>the octave </i>of eight lines and <i>the sested </i>of
six lines, with a pause or ceasura after the eighth line. Its rhyme-scheme
was <i>a b, b a, a b , b a, c d e, c d e.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Sonnet in England – Early Sonnetteers</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sir Thomas Wyatt was the first to write sonnets
in England. It is the Petrarchan form of the sonnet that Wyatt follows.
His use of this measure is often rigid and awkward, and he entirely fails to
capture the warm, sensuous colour and delicate music of the Italian poet.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">His great contemporary Earl of Surrey also wrote
sonnets in which he expressed his entirely imaginative love for Geraldine or
Lady Elizabeth Fitzgerald. The elegiac note is natural to him, but his lover’s
plaints and sighs mingle with exquisite nature-passages. His sonnets have great
artistic merits. Though he follows the Petrarchan convention of courtly love,
he does not follow the Petrarchan model of the sonnet. He divides his sonnets
into three<i>quatrains, </i>with a <i>couplet </i>at the end,
and thus he is the first to use that form of the sonnet which came to be
called <i>Shakespearean </i>from the great dramatist’s use of it. The
rhyme-scheme of this form of the sonnet is <i>a b a b, c d c d, e f e f, g
g.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Elizabethan Sonnet</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">However, the technical peculiarity of the sonnet was
not realised in the earlier years of Elizabeth’s reign. The word ‘sonnet’
was used indifferently for any short lyric. The sonnet proper remained
forgotten and neglected till the publication in 1591 of Sidney’s
sonnet-sequence called <i>Astrophel and Stella.</i>They
express Sidney’s passion for Penelope, who was by that time the wife of
Lord Rich. The Publication of <i>Astrophel and Stella </i>at once
caught the imagination of the people and gave rise to the vogue of the sonnet.
Everybody tried his hand at it, mostly to express his love for some imagined
mistress. This accounts for the artificiality of most of the Elizabethan
sonnets. Sonnets were written merely because it was the fashion to write
sonnets, and not because the poets had some really feit passion to express.
They merely echo the sighs and love-pangs of Petrarch and the Petrarchans.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">However, sincerity is the key-note of Spenser’s <i>Amoretti </i>(An
Italian name), a collection of about 88 sonnets. They express Spenser’s love
and courtship of Elizabeth Boyle, the lady who became his wife shortly
afterwards. It is in these sonnets alone that Spenser expresses his genuine
feeling without recourse to allegory. “In the first ranks of the works of the
English Renaissance, Spenser’s sonnets come between those
of Sidney and Shakespeare, from which they are different in form as
in sentiment.” – (Legouis)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Each of the quatrains in his sonnets is linked up by
rhyme, but the couplet stands alone as in the Shakespearean variety of the
sonnet.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">While the Sonnets of Sidney and Spenser form the very
core of their poetic work, Shakespeare’s <i>Sonnets </i>were written
in moments snatched from work for the theatre. His 154 sonnets were first
published in 1609, and as Wordsworth has put it, it was with this key that the
poet unlocked his heart. It is in the sonnets alone that the poet directly
expresses his feeling. Besides their sincerity of tone, they have literary qualities
of the highest order. They touch perfection in their phraseology, in their
perfect blending of sense and sound, and in their versification. Shakespeare’s
sonnet-sequence is, “the casket which encloses the most precious pearls of
Elizabethan lyricism some of them unsurpassed by any lyricist.” He divides his
sonnets into three stanzas of four lines each followed by a concluding couplet.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Contribution of Milton</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the post-Elizabethan era there is no great writer
of sonnets till we come to Milton. As F.T. Prince points out, “the English
passion for sonneteering died out in the early 17<sup>th</sup> century”,
and Milton’s sonneteering represents practically a fresh start. His was an
individual undertaking unique in the Mid-seventeenth century. By his use of
it Milton not only revived the sonnet form, but he also considerably
enlarged and widened its scope. It may also be added here that
all Milton’s sonnets are occasional and personal, on different topics, and
so cannot be arranged in sequences like the Elizabethan sonnets.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Milton’s English sonnets number twenty-three in all.
Six of these belong to the period of Milton’s youth and immaturity, though
even in them the hand of the master is visible. The rest were written during
1645-1658, the period in which Milton was largely busy in
prose-writing. “These later English sonnets are the most immediately personal
of all Milton’s utterances, representing emotional moments in his later life,
experiences which find no adequate expression in his prose-writing in the
publication of which he was during these years primarily engaged. We may
believe also that they were, like the Psalms, prompted in part by a conscious
desire in Milton to exercise himself in verse in preparation for the
epic poem which he still intended. – (Henford)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Milton’s
formal model is not the English sonnet, with its tendency to close with a
couplet, but the Italian original which, on the whole, avoided such an ending.
On the whole, Milton’s sonnets strike a new note of lofty dignity,
conformable to his epic personality, and justifying Wordsworth’s description:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In his hands<br />
The Thing became a trumpet; whence he blew<br />
Soul-animating strains – alas, too few!</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Milton widened considerably the scope of the
sonnet. Previously the sonnet sang only of love and friendship, but Milton uses
the form to express his deeply felt emotions on contemporary politics,
religion, public figures of importance, womanhood, relationship of husband and
wife, and such personal matters as his blindness. Similarly, he introduces far
reaching innovations in its technique. Following the Petrarchan tradition he
divides his sonnets into two parts – an ‘Octave’ of eight lines and a ‘Sestet’
of six lines. In the Petrarchan model, Octave and Sestet each has its own set
of rhymes, which hold it together; but each is also sub-divided, the octave
into two quatrains, the sestet into two tercets (group of three lines). In the
octave the usual arrangement of rhymes is <i>aba, abba </i>(though <i>abab
abab </i>and <i>abab baba </i>also occur). In the sestet two or
three rhyme sounds are allowed, and their arrangement varies more widely than
in the octave. The sentences fit into the division of the stanza, so that there
is a pause at the end of each quatrain and tercet, and a more marked pause
between octave and sestet.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But Milton, while accepting Petrarch as the
master of the form, introduced many stylistic innovations. His sentence
structure is more complex, and the rhythm is slowed down, the syntax tends to
overflow the two main and the two subsidiary divisions of the poem. Milton’s
use of this new style in the Sonnets foreshadows the methods of his later blank
verse, where we also find ‘the sense variously drawn out from one verse into
another’. The technical changes he takes over from the Renaissance Italians, to
make what is necessarily a short poem into one that seems weighty and
sustained; pauses within the lines are added to those suggested by the rhymes,
which are partly submerged by the flow of the sense. The sonnet thus becomes a
single verse-paragraph flowing through a sound-pattern made up of the four
division marked by the rhymes.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Sonnet after Milton</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the Augustan age, the sonnet-form fell into disuse.
Hardly any sonnet worth the name was written during this period of over a
hundred years. The sonnet was revived by Wordsworth who was inspired to write
sonnets by his study of Milton’s Sonnets. Wordsworth further widened its
scope by bringing in nature as one of its subjects. Since then, Sonnets have
been written on practically every conceivable subject between heaven and earth.
Keats, Browning and Rossetti are among other able practitioners of the form.
Very little attention is now paid to the rules of sonnet-making, and wide
liberty and flexibility in the use of the form is indulged in.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The vogue of the sonnet continues unabated in the 20<sup>th</sup> century.
We haveRobert Bridge’s admirable sonnet sequence <i>The Growth of
Love. </i>Rupert Brooke and John Masefield have immortalised themselves as
writers of sonnets. Commenting on the English sonnet in the 20<sup>th</sup> century,
J.A. Noble writes “Rich as the sonnet literature of Enlgand is now, it is
becoming every day richer and fuller, of potential promise, and though the
possibilities of the form may be susceptible to exhaustion, there are no
present signs of it, but only of new and bounteous developments. Even were no
additions made to the store which has accumulated through the centuries, the
sonnet – work of our English poets would remain for ever one of the most
precious of the </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">intellectual
possessions of the nation.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.in/2010/12/objective-poetry-and-its-different.html"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Objective Poetry and its different forms</span></a><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">1. THE BALLAD</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Ballad: Its Nature and Definition</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Ballad may be</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">defined</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">as a
short-story in verse. The word Ballad is derived from the word</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“Ballare”</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">which means
“to dance”. Originally a ballad was a song with a strong narrative substance
sung to the accompaniment of dancing. The minstrel or the bard would sing the
main parts, and the dancers would sing the refrain or certain lines which were
frequently repeated. Often it was in the form of a dialogue.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thus the popular ballad
had a strong dramatic element; the audience were not merely passive listeners,
they danced and sang along with the bard. There was thus a strong sense of
participation and, consequently, the entertainment was much greater. As the</span></span><span class="ilad"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">generally narrated some local event,
they were</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">easily</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">understood by the audience even when
they were most allusive. Loves, battles, or heroic exploits, some supernatural
incident or some local event are the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">chief</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">themes of the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ballads.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Its Two Kinds</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Gradually the dance accompaniment was dropped out and
it became more and more common for</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">to be
recited to an audience sitting still. Its metrical form also grew fixed, and
the term ballad came to be loosely applied to any narrative poem in the ballad
metre i.e. in a quatrain or four-lined stanza with alternate rhymes, the first
and third lines being eight-syllabled, and the second and fourth six-syllabled.
In this way it is possible to divide</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">into two
kinds or categories: (a)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The “Popular ballad”</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">or</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the Ballad
of growth</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">with its simplicity, its apparent ease and
artlessness, and its primitive feeling, and (b)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the
“literary ballad”,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">conscious imitation of a later date of the original
popular ballad.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A Brief Historical Survey</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The ballad was originally oral literature. It was
folk-lore.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">were passed
on orally from generation to generation and in the process they were much
“altered, modified or suppressed, and new</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">circumstances</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">suggested
opportune additions.” Oral tradition changed the form of the ballad. “Like
money in circulation it lost, little by little, its imprint; its salient curves
were blunted; and long use gave it a polish it did not have originally” –</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(Legouis).</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The popular
ballad thus is not the work of any single poet, but of a number of unknown
poets or bards.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">had been
very popular since the earliest times but the impulse to make them is strongest
in the 15<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century, and it is also to this century that the
earliest written specimens belong. Not only were numerous</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of a very
high quality made and sung, but two of the very</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">finest</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">English</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">were also
reduced to writing for the first time in this period.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">First of these remarkable</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is the
ballad of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Nut-Brown Maid.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A lady, who
is also supposed to be the poet, plays the part of the nut-brown maid and the
other speaker takes up the part of her lover, who pretends to be an outlaw in
order to test her love. This dialogue imparts to this ballad a heightened
dramatic interest and animation and these qualities, along with its sincerity
and primitive simplicity, go a long way to explain its popularity and the
fascination it has exercised on all those who have read it. This piece shows that
the essence of poetry existed in the disinherited 15<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century.
“In this echo of some humble love-ballad there is not even one false note.” Its
purpose is to free womanhood from the reproach of inconstancy but this
didacticism</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">does</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in no way lessen the aesthetic charm of this little
piece.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Chevy-Chase</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is the
other remarkable ballad. Its subject is the war between Percy of England and
Douglas of Scotland. It extols the heroism of the two as well as the generosity
and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">chivalry</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of the
victor, Percy, who weeps over the body of his enemy and admires his heroism.
The ballad is primitive in its simplicity and there is minimum of ornament. As
it is realistic, it betrays sincere</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">emotion</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in every
line, and for this reason it moves the readers and wins their hearts. It is one
of the so-called “Homeric or epicballads”, its theme being the heroic exploits
of Percy, and it deals with its subject with Homeric impartiality. The poet is
an Englishman and his English patriotism is visible in every line and yet the
courage and war-like qualities of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Douglas</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">have been
impartially brought out.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">This simple, moving ballad has fascinated not only the
people but also the learned. It charmed Sir Philip Sydney, and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Addison</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">in the 18<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century,
admired it, for its just style and natural feeling. It was included by Bishop
Percy in his</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Reliques</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(1765). It
is one of those medieval poems which did much to cause a revival of
romanticism.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">There has also come down a large cluster of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">centring
round the exploits of Robin Hood and his merry-men, who though outlaws, merely
robbed the rich to distribute their wealth among the poor and the needy. They
were local heroes and their exploits were sung by many a wandering bard.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">While the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">mentioned
above are the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">finest</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">examples of the ‘ballad of growth’ or the ‘Authentic
ballad’, Keat’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">La Belle Dame Sans Merci,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Coleridge’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Christabel</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and<i>The
Ancient Mariner</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">are the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">finest</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">examples of
the literary ballad i.e.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">written in
imitation of the popular ballad.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The literary</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">are
conscious work of art in which the poet tries to capture the simplicity, the
freshness and charm, and the rapidity of movement and the music and melody of
the original. The English had never ceased to enjoy the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads,
but the Augustans had no ear for any kind of music other than that of the
heroic couplet. But the medivealisation movement about the middle of the 19<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century did
much to cause a revival of interest in the medieval</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads. In
1765, Bishop Percy published his famous<i>Reliques of Ancient English Poetry,</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and this
single work aroused a widespread interest in the popular</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of the
past. Its influence upon Scott, Coleridge and Wordsworth cannot be exaggerated.
Literature owes a deep debt to Percy as the first popularizer of English</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads,
though he was a most unreliable</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">editor</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, and did not scruple to add and alter in order to</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">confer</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">, what he
considered to be, elegance on the ancient poems. However, it is quite possible
that if he had presented the public with a scientifically edited text, his work
would not have been popular. As it was, it awakened a keen and widespread
interest in old</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and poetry,
and it hastened the decay of poetry of the artificial school.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Next came Sir Walter Scott’s anthology of medieval</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">with some
original</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of his own.
The best of his own contributions, such as</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the Eve of
St. John,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">have a strong infusion of the ancient force and fire,
as well as a grimly supernatural element. In</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the Lay of
the Last Minstrel</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(1805) there is much more originality. The work is a
poem of considerable length written in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the
Christabel</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">metre, and professing to be the lay of an aged bard
who seeks shelter in thecastle</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Newark. As a tale, the poem is confused and difficult;
as poetry it is mediocre; but the abounding vitality of the style, fresh and
intimate local knowledge and the healthy love of nature, made it a revelation
to a public anxious to welcome the new romantic methods. The</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">chief</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">characteristics
of Scott’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">are scenic
background, historical and psychological interest, and supernatural element.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">These two great</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">anthologies</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">had
far-reaching influence on succeeding poets. Mention in this connection may be
made of Coleridge’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Christabel</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Ancient
Mariner</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and Keats’</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">La Belle
Dame Sans Merci.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Coleridge’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Ancient
Mariner</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is first of the great literary</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ballads</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of the
romantic era. Written in the traditional ballad stanza, it makes full use of
devices like repetition, refrain, question and answer method of narration,
invocation, etc., in the manner of the medieval ballad makers. He has succeeded
in capturing the freshness and simplicity of his great originals. “Thus” says
Compton Rickett “all the simple beauty of the old ballad is imparted without
any of its extravagance, while with the Medievalism he blends the modern
spirit, so as to convey a more moving magic to the reader of today.”</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Keats’ ballad</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">La Belle
Dame Sans Merci</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is one of the finest literary ballads in the English
language. This incomparable ballad can hardly be said to tell a story. “It
rather sets before us,” says Sidney Colvin “with imagery drawn from the
medieval world of enchantment and knight errantry, type of the wasting power of
love, when either adverse fate or deluded choice makes of love not a blessing
but a bane.” The poem does not so much seek to tell a story as to create an
impression or express a mood. The ballad is also autobiographical; it partly
expresses the plight of the poet himself in the thralldom of Fanny Browne. It
is a rare union of simplicity and art. It shows the poet’s mastery of the
ballad stanza and the ballad manner. The use of question and answer method of
narration and frequent repetitions in the ballad manner serve to heighten the
medieval atmosphere. Its weird old world atmosphere, its imagery, skilfully
chosen to harmonise with its emotion, its conciseness and purity of poetic
form, its simplicity of diction, and the perfect union of sound and sense,
make,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“La Belle Dame Sans Merci’ the master-piece of Keats
at least among his shorter pieces. “The ballad marks the highest point of
romantic imagination to which Keats could attain.”</span></i></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In the Victorian Age, we find many ballad-like
qualities in Tennyson’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Lady of Shallot</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">which is
based on the Arthurian legends. Lady of Shallot, besieged in a tower, is
looking at a mirror and seeing the outside world reflected in the mirror. She
falls in love with Sir Lancelot whom she sees in the mirror. Use of archaic
language, repetition, alliteration and the use of refrain are some of the
characteristics of this poem, which give it a ballad flavour.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Browning also tried his hand at ballad-writing. In</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Herve Riel,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">we see him
at work in a medium whose method is by no means to dissect step by step
individual consciousness, but to describe an event graphically, swiftly, and
dramatically, the method of the ballad. Once before he had done it as a
perpetual joy for children in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Pied Piper of Hamelin,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">a work
written to amuse little Willy Macredy, the son of famous actor. For his purpose
he had borrowed from an old legend, but now he went to history itself.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Nor were the Pre-Raphaelites without a love for this
literary</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">genre.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Of
Rossetti’s ballad</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Sister Helen</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is the
noblest, as</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Rose Mary</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is the
richest:</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Sister Helen</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">has an
original quality and has been variously appraised. Medieval in setting it tells
of a woman who in her castle, burns the waxen image of her lover who has
betrayed her. So fierce is her passion for revenge that she wants to damn him,
body and soul, by the power of magic. The lover’s brother, father, and finally his
wedded wife arrive to pray for mercy, but she is adamant. The poem is in the
form of conversation between Helen herself and her little brother, who is set
in the window to watch what may befall, while the slow agony is in progress.
Each stanza has a refrain, to capture the appropriate atmosphere of magic.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Rose Mary</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is
Rossetti’s most characteristic poem. A.C. Benson writes, “In this ballad are
blended all the strains that were most potent in his mind. The setting is
purely romantic, “there is the passion of erring and slighted love and the
whole poem is dominated by the deepest and most mystical super-naturalism.”
Swinburne has to his credit ballads like</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">May Fanet;
The Witch Mother,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A Ballad of Dreamland.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">William
Morris (1834-96) also wrote ballads. His first book of poetry,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Defence
of Guenevere and Other Poems</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(1858),
contained two ballads,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Shameful Death;</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the
Haystack in the Floods.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">These two ballads are the models of compression and
simplicity in narrative. Here mention may also be made of Macaulay’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Lays of
Ancient Rome</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and Matthew Arnold’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Forsaken
Merman.</span></i></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Englishman’s love of the ballad continues unabated
in the 20<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century. Thus love was accentuated by the publication
of F.J. Child’s Anthology of Ballads entitled<i>English and Scotish Popular
Ballads,</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and the recent researches in Anthropology and
Sociology. This monumental work inspired a host of writers to write ballads,
and some have done so with great success. John Masefield has a number of fine
ballad to his credit and the ballad-strain runs through his masterpiece</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Reynard the
Fox.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Walter De La Mare has also tried his hand at the
genre. While T.S. Eliot’s genius was too heavy for primitive simplicity of this
form, W.B. Yeats was one of the greatest writers of ballads in the modern age.
The ballad strain runs through most of his poetry. This is so because he was
profoundly influenced by Irish folk-lore and folk-ballads, and this influence
has left a permanent mark on his poetry.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Ballad
of Moll Magee</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is one of his more popular ballads. Another great
writer of ballads in the 20<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century was</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">W.H. Auden.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">His</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Ballad
of Miss Gee</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Victor</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">rank very
high as ballads. They are ballads of the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Comic-horofic</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">kind; they
arouse horror by narrating lightly deeds of incredible cruelty.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Mock-ballad: In the end mention may be made of
Mock-ballad, a parody of the ballad proper. In the mock-ballad a comic theme is
treated with tragic earnestness and so the serious is made ridiculous. William
Cowper’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">John Gilpin</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is one of
the finest examples of a mock-ballad in the English language.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Essentials of a Good Ballad</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The chief characteristics of a good ballad may be
summarised as follows:</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">1. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is a
short story in verse, about the exploits of some popular hero, or about an
incident of common knowledge. The story is generally tragic.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">2. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
narration is dramatic, and the attention of the readers is captured by an
abrupt, startling opening.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">3. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is
characterised by extreme simplicity. Indeed, its primitive simplicity is one of
its peculiar charms. Complexity and difficulty of every kind is avoided.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">4. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Question
and answer method of narration is used.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">5. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Often the
poet prays to Christ and Virgin Mary.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">6. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Obsolete
and archaic words are used to create a medieval, old world atmosphere.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">7. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is
extremely musical.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">8. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An element
of the supernatural, magic and mystery is generally introduced.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">9. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is
written in the ballad-stanza i.e. in quatrains with alternate rhymes (first
line rhyming with the third, and the second with the fourth). However, this
basic pattern is frequently varied.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">10. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Often there
is repetition of particular lines, words, or phrases.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">2. THE EPIC</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Epic of Growth</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Just as a Ballad is a short story in verse, the epic
is a long story in verse.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Just as there are ballads of growth and ballads of
art, so also there are</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Epics of growth</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and<i>Epics
of art.</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The epic of growth has its origin in popular song and
story. It is not the work of one man or the result of conscious artistic
effort. A number of stories and legends about some popular hero may circulate
in an oral form for generations. They may be given currency by wandering bards
or minstrels. Later on, some poet may collect them, organise them and impart to
them form and unity.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Iliad</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is one such
epic. It is supposed to have been composed by the Ancient Greek poet Homer out
of a number of fragmentary stories. The Anglo-Saxon</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Beuwolf</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is another
epic of growth. The name of the poet who brought together the floating material
of legend and folk-lore is not known.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Epic of Art</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An epic of art, on the other hand, is an artistic
imitation of the manner and style of the authentic epic or the epic of growth.
It is the work of one man who tries to imitate and excel the earlier poets.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Aenied</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of the
Roman poet Virgil and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise Lost</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">of the
English poet Milton are the most prominent examples of the Epic of art.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Hudson, distinguishing between these two different
kinds, writes: “The literary epic naturally resembles the primitive epic, on
which it is ultimately based, in various fundamental characteristics. Its
subject-matter is of the old heroic and mythical kind; it makes free use of the
supernatural; it follows the same structural plan and reproduces many
traditional details of composition; while, greatly as it necessarily differs in
style, it often adopts the formulas, fixed epithets, and stereotyped phrases
and locations, which are among the marked features of the early type. But
examination discloses, beneath all superficial likenesses, a radical
dissimilarity. The heroic and legendary material is no longer living material;
it is invented by the poet or by disinterested scholarly research; and it is
handled with laborious care in accordance with abstract rules and principles
which have become part of an accepted literary tradition. Where, therefore, the
epic of growth is fresh, spontaneous, racy, the epic of art is learned,
antiquarian, bookish, imitative. Its specifically ‘literary’ qualities – its
skilful reproduction, and adaptation of epic matter and methods, its erudition,
its echoes, reminiscences, and borrowings – are indeed, as the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Aenied</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise
Lost</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">will suffice to prove, among its most interesting
characteristics for a cultured reader.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Essentials of an Epic</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The essentials of an epic are:</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">1. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is a
long narrative poem, generally divided into twelve books. Homer’s epics are
divided into twelve books each, and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">also
divided his</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise Lost</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">into twelve
books.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">2. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It deals
with the military exploits, deeds of valour, of some national hero or of same
person of national, even international importance. The epic hero is a man of
heroic bulk and dimensions. He is giant among men and has extra-ordinary
physical prowess. Because an epic is a story of heroic deeds it is also called
a heroic poem. Thus Homer’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Iliad</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">narrates
the heroic deeds of the Greeks during the war of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Troy, and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Odyssey</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">those of
King Odysessus or Ulysses.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton’s<i>Paradise Lost</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">has a
cosmic sweep and range and deals with events of interest to all mankind. In
this respect, it stands unique among the epics of the world.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">3. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A number of
thrilling and sensational episodes and digressions are introduced. There is
much exaggeration, and the incredible adventures and deeds of valour narrated
by the poet excite wonder and admiration.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">4. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">However,
despite such digressions, the epic has a well-marked unity and form. It is an
organic whole. Thus unity is provided by the fact that all events and
adventures centre round the central figure, the epic-hero. Indeed, it is on
this basis that epic is divided into two classes (a)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the classic
epic,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and (b)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the
romantic epic.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The classic epic is coherent and well-knit, while the
romantic epic is characterised by much incoherence and looseness of structure.
A romantic epic is rambling and incoherent and lacks concentration on any one
central figure. There is confusing diversity of character and action, and if
there is any unity, it is hard to discover. Spenser’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Fairy Queen</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is an
instance of such a romantic epic. It lacks in that organic unity which is an
essential characteristic of a classic epic, like the epics of Homer or Milton.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">5. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
supernatural plays an important part, and frequently intervenes in the action.
Thus in Homer’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Iliad,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the Gods intervence
in the war of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Troy, and in Spenser’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Fairy Queen</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">also a
number of supernatural agencies are seen at work.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">6. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An epic
reflects the life of the times. It is the very embodiment of the spirit of the
age in which it is written. It is an important social document and much may be
known from it about the life of the times.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">7. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The purpose
of the epic is moral. It may be to arouse patriotism and national pride as in
the case of Homer, or “to fashion a gentleman in virtuous and gentle discipline”
as in the case of Spenser, or to justify the ways of god to man, as in the case
of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">8. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The theme
of an epic is lofty and sublime, and its diction is equally elevated and grand.
Grandeur both in theme and treatment characterises an epic. Epic-similes,
Personifications, Latinism, unusual and unfamiliar words, allusions and
references, Latin or inverted constructions, peripherises, etc., are the
various stylistic devices used with this end in view.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">9. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">There are
certain epic conventions which are followed as far as the method of narration
is concerned. First, poet does not begin his story from the beginning, but
plunges somewhere in the middle, and the earlier part of the story is told in
due course.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Secondly, the poet begins the epic with an invocation
to the Muse to inspire him.Milton</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">invokes the
Heavently Muse in the very beginning of his epic.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Thirdly, the invocation is followed by a statement of
the theme of the epic and the purpose of the poet in writing it. Thus</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">tells us
that his theme is the fall of man, and his purpose is to justify the ways of
God to Men.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Fourthly, in all epics there is a journey to the
underworld, undertaken to seek the help of some supernatural agency. Similarly,
accounts of tournaments, catalogues of warriors, assemblies and conferences,
are common features of an epic, and are a part of the epic convention.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“The ambition to write an epic and thus to equal the
literary exploits of the ancients like, Virgil and Homer, and of the modern
poets of</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Europe, like Ariosto, was born with the Renaissance”.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">We find
that there is a host of poets trying to write an epic after the model of Homer
and Virgil and there are many others trying to translate the epics of
antiquity. The best of such translations is</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">George Chapman’s</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">rendering
of Homer, a work which fired the imagination of Keats; and the best of the
long, narrative poems are those of Daniel, Drayton and Spenser, who tried to
write epics but succeeded only in producing long, narrative poems.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Epics continued to be written all through the 17<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century –
Abraham Cowley’s<i>Davidies</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and D’Avenant’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Gondibert</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">being the
outstanding examples – but it was Milton alone who could write a successful
epic in the classical style.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise Lost</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is the only
classical epic in the English language. This is the significance of the remark
that the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“epic in</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">England,
begins and ends with</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton.”</span></i></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">‘Paradise</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Lost’</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is a
classical epic, having all the common features of the epics of homer and
Virgil. It is a long narrative poem in twelve books, its subject is solemn and
grand, and it finds an equally grand and solemn treatment. Indeed grandeur and
majesty are the key-notes of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton’s epic. Like the classical epic, it has unity
of theme and treatment. There is nothing in it that is superfluous; every
episode and incident leads to the central theme – the fall of man and the loss
of paradise. Wars and heroic exploits are also not lacking. There is
supernatural intervention in plenty. Its characters are mostly superhuman – God
and His angels, and Satan and his followers. There are only two human
characters, Adam and Eve. Indeed this paucity of human actors and consequent
lack of human interest is the basic weakness of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton’s
epic. In keeping with the epic tradition, its style and versification is lofty
and sublime. Frequent and effective use has been made of Homeric or epic
similes.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise Lost</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is a
classical epic, but it also has a number of qualities all its own. A classical
epic deals with a subject of national importance, with the war-like exploits of
some hero of national status. The theme of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton’s
epic is vaster and of a more universal human interest than any handled by the
poet’s predecessors. It concerns itself with the fortune, not of a city or an
empire, but of the whole human race, and with that particular event in the
history of the race which has moulded all its destinies. Around this event, the
plucking of an apple are ranged, according to the strictest rules of the
ancient epic, the histories of Heaven and Earth and Hell. The scene of action
is Universal Space. The time represented is Eternity. The characters are God
and all his creatures. And all these are exhibited in the clearest and most
inevitable relation with the main event, so that there is not an incident,
hardly a line of the poem, but leads backwards or forwards to that central
theme.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Romantic Era:</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Wordsworth’s “Prelude”: The 18<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century is
an age of satire, of parody, of burlesque, and of mock epic. The genius of the
age was not suited to epic or heroic poetry. In the romantic and the Victorian
ages, many poets tried their hands at the epic but with little success. The
greatest of the epics of the romantic era is doubtlessly Wordsworth’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Prelude. The Prelude</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">has all the essential features of an epic. It is characterised
by length. It runs into twelve books. It has a central figure, the poet, and it
tells the story of how his mind was educated and developed under the influence
of Nature. In an epic there are military adventures, but in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Prelude</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">the
adventures are of the mind and the soul. There is conflict, but the conflict is
not physical and external: it is rather internal and spiritual. In other words,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Prelude</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">does have
the war-like nature of an epic. However, in this respect</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">had already
enlarged the scope of the epic, and Wordsworth carries this enlargement a step
further.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">had shown external conflict. In Wordsworth, the
spiritual, the adventures and conflicts of the spirit, are the very basis of
the epic.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The epic unity in Wordsworth’s poem, is provided
throughout by the personality of the poet, but there is also epic variety,
sweep and range. This variety is provided by the countless digressions and
episodes that the poet has introduced. Thus we have the digressions of the
stolen-boat, bird-nesting, and the episodes of card playing and the game of
Naughts and Crosses. Nor does the poem lack epic significance and universality.
As</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Abercrombie</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">rightly
points out,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“The Prelude</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is not the
story of the growth and education of a particular poetic, but of the poetic
temperament and as such has universal implications. It tells us not only of the
education of the poet Wordsworth but how the soul of a great poet is formed and
developed under various influences, specially the influence of Nature.” Thus</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Prelude</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is an epic
but an epic of a different kind.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Keats and Byron:</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Keats’</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Hyperion</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is modelled
on</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise
Lost</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and Keats employed many of the devices of the
classical epic e.g. catalogue of assembled Titans in the second book,
description of the great council, and architecture of the classical epic. Keats
gave up the adventure in sheer disgust; for</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton’s
flights and daring conjurations were beyond his power. Byron’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Don Juan</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is another
great work in the epical style. It is Byron’s epic-satire reviewing satirically
the social, political and economic conditions of different countries of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Europe.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">English Epic in the Victorian Age: During the
Victorian age Tennyson attempted the fusion of classical epic and romance in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Idylls
of the King.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“We look in vain here, however, for the technical
features of either classical or romantic epic. The unity is a unity of
framework rather than an organic unity of all the parts.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Idylls</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">are really
idylls, separate pictures or cantos of a single poem. Each has its independent
beginning and in no respect prepares for that which follows. There is scarcely
one of the traditional devices we have come to associate with the epic-form –
the formal theme, the plunge in the middle with a later narrative exposition,
the catalogue of forces, or the epic simile. There is blank verse, it is true
as in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paradise Lost,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">but it is
not Miltonic blank verse. Classical ideals are upheld in the artistry and
precision with which the flowing verses are made rich and beautiful, but the
spirit is that of slightly ennobled and purified romance.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Morris’</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Defence
of Gunievera</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Other Poems</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is an epic
in which he approached the Arthurian legend, in a very different manner.
Matthew Arnold’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Sohrab and Rustam,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">based an
Firdosi’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Shahnama,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is an epic
fragment describing with all the richness of Homeric similes, the death of
Sohrab at the hands of his father, Rustam. This epic fragment embodies</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Arnold’s
fatalistic attitude towards life and the overpowering role of fate in human
affairs.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Modern Epic:</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">All these poems bear witness to the continued ambition
to write an epic, but considered as epics they fall far short of the epics of
antiquity or of the epics of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Milton. It seems that the modern age is not suited to
epic poetry. T.S. Eliot may write</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Waste
Land</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">which has been called the epic of the 20<sup>th</sup></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">century,
and an Alfred Noyes may write<i>Drake</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">dealing
with the exploits of the well known Elizabethan sea-dog, but there can be no
denying the fact that the modern ages has neither the heroic temper nor the
requisite leisure. The Horizons of life have widened and no poet can include
them all in his work, however, wide his vision, and the range sweep of his
imagination. Moreover there is the competition from the novel which is a long
narrative in prose, as the epic is a long narrative in verse.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">3. THE MOCK-EPIC</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Its Nature</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A Mock-epic is a small narrative poem in which the
machinery and conventions of epic proper are employed in the treatment of
trivial themes, and in this way it becomes a parody or burlesque of the epic. A
mocking, ridiculous effect is created when the grandiloquent epic-style and
epic-conventions are used for a theme which is essentially trivial and
insignificant. The ancient Mock-epic</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Battle
of the Frog and Mice,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">a parody of Homer’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Iliad,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Swift’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Tale of a
Tub</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Battle of the Books</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and Pope’s<i>Dunciad</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Rape of
the Lock</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">are the finest examples of the Mock-epic.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Its Essential Features</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The essentials of a Mock-epic are best illustrated by
a brief consideration of Pope’s<i>Rape of the Lock.</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The theme
of the Mock-epic is the rape on the locks of a butterfly of society, Belinda,
committed by her lover, Lord Peter, a gallant. The lady is displeased, the two
families fall out, and Pope is requested to write something to laugh away the
displeasure of the young lady. Pope uses the machinery and convention of the
epic, as well as the grandiloquent epic-style for his essentially trivial
theme. The trivial is exaggerated and glorified and a mocking, ridiculous
effect is thus created. Instead of the mighty epic-hero, we have a tiny slip of
a girl as the central personage, digression and episodes deal not with the
military exploits of some gigantic epic hero, but with a game of cards, and the
fight of the lord and ladies for the severed lock of hair. The weapons used are
not swords and spears, but a bodkin and a pinch of snuff, and the killing eyes
of ladies. The supernatural agency is also there in the form of tiny sylphs who
seated on bodkins or candlesticks watch the fight between the parties. The
various stylistic devices of he epic-poet, exaggeration,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Latinism,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">personifi-
cation, circumlocution, have been used throughout, and as the subject is
trivial the result is ridiculous in the extreme. In this way, the epic values
are reversed, and we get not the epic, but the mock-epic, a parody of the epic
proper.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Battle of the Books</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is one of
the finest and the greatest of the prose mock-epics in the language. The
exalted epic manner and style have been used effectively for a trivial subject
i.e. a literary controversy regarding the comparative merits and demerits of
ancient and modern learning.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">”The result is a delightful fantasia, an inimitable
parody of the epic.”</span></i></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">4. THE IDYLL</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">By the word “Idyll” is meant a description in prose or
verse of some scene or event which is striking, picturesque, and complete in
itself.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Such an idyll may stand alone, or it may form a kind
of interlude in a longer composition. In our literature idyllic passages are
commoner than isolated-idylls. Indeed, the actual name is best known to us by
Tennyson’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Idylls of the King,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and
Browning’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Dramatic Idylls.</span></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An Idyll is neither a lyric nor a narrative but
partakes of the qualities of both. It derives its name from the Greek word
meaning,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“a little picture”,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and so two
of its essential characteristics are (a)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">its
brevity,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and (b)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">pictorial
effect.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An Idyll keeps relatively close to the ordinary world
of action and experience, though it may give idealised pictures of that world.
More often than not an Idyll gives us idealised, poetic pictures of the life
and doings of rural folk in rural setting. It sheds a romantic poetic glow on
what may otherwise be commonplace, dull, prosaic and dreary. It deals with
simple like, and so its language is also simple. It is characterised by
simplicity both in theme and treatment. We get such an idealised picture of
rural life in Shakespeare’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Winter’s Tale</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">with
Perdita distributing flowers to her guests, and there are a number of such
idylls scattered all up and down the novels of Thomas Hardy.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Commenting on the characteristics of an Idyll, Hudson
writes, “This kind of narrative poetry often finds its themes and characters in
the present; and even when it goes back into the past for them, it seeks them
still, as in Longfellow’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Evageline,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">mind
commonplace people and surroundings and not in heroic legend, or romantic
achievements, or among the great movements and figures of history. Sometimes it
may take the form of a humorous transcript from contemporary manners,
especially the manners of “low” life, as in several of Chaucer’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Canterbury
Tales,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and in the delightful character-studies loosely set in
the economic argument of Goldesmith’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Deserted
village.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">But the greatest interest belongs to two subdivisions
of it, both of comparatively recent growth, the first of these comprises such
poems as derive their material from “the short and simple annals of the poor,”
or from the lives of the humble and obscure, like Wordsworth’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Michael</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and
Tennyson’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Enoch Arden</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Dora.</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">To the
second we may assign all such poetic narratives as, Mrs. Browning’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Aurora
Leigh,</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Coventry Patmore’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Angel
in the House,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">and Robert Browning’s</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Red-Cotton
Night-Cap Country,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">which are to all intent and purpose novels in verse.
The former class has a special historical significance as marking the influx
into narrative poetry of that ever-broadening sympathy with “all sorts and
conditions of men.” Which is one aspect of the modern democratic movement. The
latter is manifestly the result of that same complex of forces, social and
literary, which produced the modern novel.”</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">5. THE DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Dramatic Monologue is the most important kind of
that sub-division of objective poetry which we have called dramatic, which is
dramatic not because it is to be acted on the stage, but because it gives the
thoughts and emotions not of the poet but of some imagined character. The
poet’s identity is merged with that of the dramatic personage, and the poet
speaks through his mouth, so to say.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Robert
Browning</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">is the most important writer of dramatic monologues in
the English language.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The dramatic monologues are dramatic because they do
not express the thoughts and feelings of the poet but of some imaginary
character; they are monologues because in them only one character speaks
throughout (Mono means ‘one’).</span></i></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The dramatic monologues may be used for the study of
character, of particular mental states and of moral crises in the soul of the
characters concerned. In his monologues, the poet Browning depicts an amazingly
wide variety of characters, taken from all walks of life, cowards, rogues,
artists, scholars, Dukes, cheats, beggars, murderers, and saints like Pippa,
all crowd his picture-gallery. His characters belong not to any one country and
age, but to a number of countries and ages.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In each monologue, one character is at the centre, and
the substance of the monologue consists of what passes within his soul.
Cazamian calls them, “soul reflectors”, or “studies in practical psychology”,
for they provide us with a peep into the inner working of the mind and soul of
these characters. Beside these main figures, in each monologue there are some
minor figures who are briefly but distinctly sketched with a few deft touches.
They are the listeners for most of the time, but they also perform the dramatic
function of the interlocutor from time to time, and thus provide the reason or
the cause for the speaker’s mood or his self-analysis. Thus in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Andrea Del
Sarto,</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Andrea is the speaker, Lucrezia is the listener, and
her lover and the three rival artists are also introduced indirectly. Often the
nature background is skilfully interwoven with the mood and temper of the
speaker, and in this way the total effect is heightened. In the poem
mentioned-above, the speaker’s references to the Autumnal grey
nature-background are used to heighten his own mood of depression and world
weariness.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In each monologue, the speaker is placed in the most
momentous or critical situation of his life and the monologue embodies his
reactions to his situation. The monologues have an abrupt, but very arresting
opening, and, at the same time, what has gone before is suggested cleverly or
brought out through retrospective meditation and reflection. Thus</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">My Last
Duchess</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">opens with a reference to the picture of the dead Duchess,
with clear indication that it is being shown to some one. Similarly this abrupt
beginning may be followed by self-introspection on the part of the speaker, and
his moods, emotions, reflections, and meditations may be fully expressed. The
speaker’s thoughts range freely over the past and the future, and so there is
no logical and chronological development. The past and the future are focused
in the present and the unity is emotional rather than logical.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The main feature that distinguishes
poetry from other written genres is succinctness, a tight structure and higher
concentration of content – crowded into fewer words – than you usually find in
ordinary prose.<br />
Poetry can be analyzed as to its <b>form</b> and
its <b>content</b>. Ideally, the two should reflect and reinforce each
other in expressing the message of the poem.<br />
<br />
<b>FORM: </b><br />
<br />
<b><i> </i>Number of lines:</b> The <b>number
of lines</b> may be a clue that a poem belongs to a special verse form,
for example, a <b>sonnet</b> , which in Chinese is called a limerick, which normally has five lines. A
poem or stanza with one line is called a <b>monostich</b>, one with two
lines is a <b>couplet</b>; with three, <b>tercet</b> or <b>triplet</b>;
four, <b>quatrain</b>. six, <b>hexastich</b>; seven, <b>heptastich</b>;
eight, <b>octave</b>. Also note the <b>number of stanzas</b>.<br />
<br />
<b><i> </i>Meter:</b> English has <b>stressed</b> and <b>unstressed</b> syllables.
English is considered a <b>stress-timed<i> </i></b>language, unlike
French, which is a <b>syllable-timed</b> language. In poetry,
stressed and unstressed syllables are often put together in specific patterns.
In poetry these patterns are called <b>meter</b>, which means 'measure'.
The meters you find in poetry are the same ones we use in everyday speech. The
main difference is that in speech these patterns tend to occur spontaneously
and without any special order; in poetry they are usually carefully chosen and
arranged.<br />
Here are the most common meters you find in
English poetry. <b>/</b> represents a stressed, long syllable;</span><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">stands for an unstressed, short
syllable (<i>not</i> to be confused with 'long' and 'short' vowels), also
called a<b><i>mora</i></b> (pl. <b><i>morae</i></b>, sometimes <b><i>moras</i></b>).
The first word of each meter below (e.g. 'iambic') is the adjective form, the
one in parentheses is the noun form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">iambic</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (<b>iamb</b>; L. <i>iambus</i>,
Gk <i>iambos</i>; a pre-Hellenic word)<br />
<b>trochaic</b> (<b>trochee</b>; Gk. <i>trochaios</i> 'running')<br />
<b>dactylic</b> (<b>dactyl</b>; Gk. <i>daktylos</i> 'finger'
with one long, two short joints)<br />
<b>anapestic</b> (<b>anapest</b>; Gk. <i>ana</i> 'back'
+ <i>paiein</i> 'to strike', i.e., a reversed dactyl)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/ </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/ </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/ </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/<br />
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> A
fifth kind of meter is called <b>spondaic</b> (spondee; Gk sponde
'solemn libation', which was accompanied by a solemn melody) and consists of
two consecutive lo ng, stressed syllables:<b> / /</b>; and a sixth is
caled <b>pyrrhic</b> (from a word for an ancient Greek war dance);
this is a metrical foot having two short or unaccented syllables </span><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。。</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. In addition, there are two even
lesser-known meters, <b>amphibrach</b>, which has a short-long-short
pattern: </span><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
/</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (e.g. <i>de<b>li</b>cious</i>)
and <b>amphimacer</b>, a long-short-long one: <b>/</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">。</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">/ </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(e.g. <b><i>eigh</i></b><i>ty-<b>eight</b></i>).
There are still other meters, but these are mostly from Greek and Latin poetry
(the preceding are also found in Greek and Latin poetry), and they are not very
applicable to English poetry.<br />
Often the same rhythm will <b>not</b> be used
throughout a whole poem, or even a whole line; there may be an extra beat here,
one omitted there; or the meter may simply change. Poets often seem to
establish a regular pattern, but then put in something 'unexpected' to startle
the reader, or to achieve some special effect.<br />
If the meter of a poem seems to fall into none of
the above categories, it may simply have an <b>irregular</b>, or
unpredictable, meter that does not follow any set pattern.<br />
You can divide the rhythms above into parts.
Circle each group of symbols containing just one long, stressed syllable <b>/</b> in
each example above. You will find that each line has four such groups. Each one
of these groups is called a <b>foot</b>, and counting the number of feet
is one way of determining the length of a line of poetry. Here are the literary
terms for each line length as regards number of feet: one foot:<b>monometer</b>;
two feet: <b>dimeter</b>; three feet, <b>trimeter</b>; four
feet, <b>tetrameter</b>; five feet, <b>pentameter</b>; six
feet, <b>hexameter</b>; seven feet, <b>heptameter</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">caesura</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: a caesura is simply a pause.
Absence of sound is also an important element of poetry. Make sure you insert
caesuras where they are called for. Not all caesuras are the same length; some
are quite long, others are very short. Normally there is a fairly long caesura
at the end of every line of poetry. There is usually also a very short caesura
after every 'foot'.<br />
<b><br />
punctuation and capitalization</b>: An important thing to remember is that
almost any kind of punctuation you see in a poem tends to signal a pause or
caesura. Some poets use very conventional punctuation, some use none at all.
Some follow their own special rules in the use of punctuation, e.g. E. E.
Cummings, who is also noted for seldom using capital letters in his poetry. You
know from your experience with Chinese that different ways of punctuating a
phrase or sentence can sometimes result in different meanings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Rhyme
is the effect created by matching sounds at the end of words. Ordinarily this
includes the last accented vowel and the sounds that follow it, but not the
sound of the preceding consonant(s).<br />
<b> Masculine rhyme</b> falls on <b>one
syllable</b>: <i>fat, cat; repair, affair</i>. <b>Feminine</b> or <b>double
rhyme</b> includes <b>two syllables, of which only the first is
stressed</b>: <i>better, setter; pleasure, treasure</i>. <b>Triple
rhyme</b>, often reserved for light verse and doggerel, involves <b>three
syllables</b>: <i>practical, tactical</i>.<br />
There are different kinds of rhyme: <b>exact
rhyme</b> (<b>perfect, full, true, complete, whole</b>), which repeats end
sounds precisely, e.g. <i>cap, map</i>; <b>slant rhyme</b> (<b>half,
approximate, imperfect, near, off, oblique</b>) provides an approximation of
the sound: <i>cat, cot; hope, cup; defeated, impeded</i>. Identical rhyme
repeats the entire sound, including the initial consonant, sometimes (as
in <b>rime riche</b>) with two different meanings and/or spellings, e.g.<i> two,
too</i>. <b>Eye rhyme</b> looks as though it should rhyme, but does
not, e.g. <i>great, meat; proved, loved</i>. <b>Apocopated rhyme</b> pairs
a masculine and feminine ending, rhyming on the stress: <i>cope, hopeless;
kind, finder</i>. In <b>mosaic rhyme</b>, two words rhyme with one, or two
with two: <i>master, passed her; chorus, before us; went in, sent in</i>.<br />
Most rhyme occurs at the end of the line and is
called <b>terminal rhyme</b>. <b>Initial rhyme</b> comes at the
beginning of a line, and is sometimes combined with <b>end rhyme</b>. <b>Internal
rhyme</b> occurs within one or more lines. <b>Crossed</b> or <b>interlaced
rhyme</b> combines internal and end rhyme to give a long-line couplet the
effect of a short-line quatrain. <b>Enclosed rhyme</b> envelops a couplet
with rhyming lines in the pattern<b>abba</b>. In <b>interlocking rhyme</b> a
word unrhymed in a first stanza is linked with words rhymed in the next to
create a continuing pattern, e.g. <b>aba bcb cdc</b>.<br />
The <b>functions of rhyme</b> are
essentially four: <b>pleasurable, mnemonic, structural</b> and <b>rhetorical</b>.
Like meter and <b>figurative language</b>, rhyme provides a pleasure
derived from fulfillment of a basic human desire to see similarity in
dissimilarity, likeness with a difference. As a mnemonic aid, it couples lines
and thoughts, imprinting poems and passages on the mind in a manner that
assists later recovery. As a structural device, it helps to define line ends
and establishes the patterns of couple, quatrain, stanza, ballad, sonnet, and
other poetic units and forms. As a rhetorical device, it helps the poet to
shape the poem and the reader to understand it. Because rhyme links sound, it
also links thought, pulling the reader's mind back from the new word to the
word that preceded it.<br />
The effect of rhyme in a poem depends to a large
extent on its association with meter. Rhymes gain emphasis in sound and
rhetoric when they are heavily stressed. Rhyme is frequent in the poetry of
many but not all languages. It is rare in Greek, Latin, and Old English, though
it has been common in English since the 14th century. By a more extended
definition it can cover the sound patterns of the poetry of all languages and
periods, and may include any sound echo, such as <b>alliteration</b> (alliterative
verse </span><span style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">雙聲詩</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> was briefly popular in China's
Northern and Southern Dynasty period), <b>assonance, consonance</b> and<b>repetition</b> (definitions
below).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> A few
verse forms:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.uni.edu/~gotera/CraftOfPoetry/sonnet.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sonnet</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (It. from L. sonus 'sound'):
This is a special verse form with 14 lines, usually <b>iambic pentameter</b> in
English. There are two main kinds of sonnet, <b>Italian</b> or <b>Petrarchan </b>and <b>Shakespearean</b> or<b>English</b>.
An Italian sonnet is composed of an <b>octave</b>, i.e. an eight-line
verse, rhyming <b>abbaabba</b>, and a <b>sestet</b> or six-line
verse, rhyming <b>cdecde</b> or <b>cdcdcd</b>, or in some
variant pattern, but with no concluding<b>couplet</b> (2-line verse). A
Shakespearean sonnet has <b>three quatrains</b> (four-line verses)
and rhymes <b>abab cdcd efef gg</b>. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.poetrydoctor.org/sonnet.htm" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">how to write
a sonnet</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/LTBlankVerse.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">blank verse</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Unrhymed iambic pentameter.<br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/LTFreeVerse.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">free verse</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Poetry that is free of traditional
rhyme, metrical, stanza patterns.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/LTHerCouplet.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Heroic
couplet</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:
Lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme in pairs (<b>aa, bb, cc</b>).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/doggerel%2Bverse" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">doggerel</span></b></a></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:
Silly, trivial poetry. A humorous poem may belong to a set form, for example,
it may be a </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://knox.link75.org/bcs/Publish%20C/bcspoetry/limerick.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">limerick</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> A limerick has an <b>aabba</b> rhyme
scheme; the first two and last rhymes are trimeter, the third and fourth,
dimeter. It is usually dactylic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.baymoon.com/~ariadne/form/triolet.htm" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">triolet</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: A French verse form with this
rhyme scheme: A B a - Rhymes with 1st line. A - Identical to 1st line. a -
Rhymes with 1st line. b - Rhymes with 2nd line. A - Identical to 1st line. B -
Identical to 2nd line. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.writing-world.com/poetry/triolet.shtml" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">how to write
a triolet</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (with
links on the <b>ballad, sonnet, villanelle</b>) </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.poetrypoetry.com/Workshops/00-01/1_Triolet.m3u" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">audio file</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> on the triolet form<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://newark.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/spenserian.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Spenserian
stanza</span></b></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:
A nine-line stanza with an <b>ababbcbcC</b> rhyme scheme; the capital
"C" means the last verse is an Alexandrine, which has six feet
instead of five, i.e. it is s a hexameter instead of pentameter.<br />
<br />
<b> </b>When reading a poem, try to get to its intended
message, what the poet is trying to communicate in this poem; this may be quite
different from the apparent, literal meaning of the poem.<br />
Sometimes a poet is simply trying to communicate
a certain feeling, and uses various devices to create that feeling or an
understanding of it in the reader. Sometimes a poem is mostly form with little
meaning; its main effect may be visual or auditory. This is called <b>abstract
poetry</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">OTHER LITERARY TERMS<br />
<br />
alliteration</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (L. <i>ad</i> 'to'
+ <i>littera</i> 'letter'';: Repetition of the same or similar
consonant sound at the beginning of a
word, e.g. 'Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.'<br />
<br />
<b>allusion</b> (L. <i>allusio</i> 'a playing with';: A
reference to another text or event.<br />
<br />
<b>ambiguity</b> (L. <i>ambi</i> 'around' + <i>agere</i> 'act'; <i>ambigere</i> 'to
wander'; : Something suggesting more than one meaning or interpretation.<br />
<br />
<b>anonymous</b> (Gk. <i>an</i> 'without' + <i>onyma</i> 'name';
: 'Without a name'; indicates that an author of a work is not known.<br />
<br />
<b>antithesis</b> (Gr. <i>anti</i> 'against' + <i>tithenai</i> 'to
place'; : A direct contrast or opposition.<br />
<br />
<b>antonym</b> (Gk. <i>anti</i> 'opposite' + <i>onyma</i> 'name';
: A word opposite in meaning to another.<br />
<br />
<b>assonance</b> (L. <i>ad</i> 'to' + <i>sonare</i> 'sound';
'to sound in answer'; : Repetition of vowel
sounds, e.g. 'They flee from me that sometime did me seek.'.<br />
<br />
<b>cacophony</b> (Gk. <i>kakos</i> 'bad, evil' + <i>phone</i> 'voice'
adj. <b>cacophonous</b>; : 'Bad-sounding'.<br />
<br />
<b>cliché;</b> (F. <i>clicher</i> 'to stereotype' from Gk. <i>klitsch</i>,
'clump, claylike mass'; 'to pattern in clay'; A tired expression that has lost
its original power to surprise because of overuse.<br />
<br />
<b>connotations</b> (L. <i>com-</i> 'together' + <i>notare</i> 'to
mark'; The implied meanings of a word;
its overtones and associations over and above its literal, dictionary meaning.<br />
<br />
<b>consonance</b> (L. <i>com</i> 'with' + <i>sonare</i> 'to
sound'; : Repetition of inner or end consonant sounds, e.g. the <b>r</b> and <b>s</b> in
'broods with warm breast'.<br />
<br />
<b>context</b> (L. <i>com-</i> 'together' + <i>texere</i> 'to
weave'; : The verbal or physical surroundings of a text.<br />
<br />
<b>denotation</b> (L. <i>de</i> 'down' + <i>notare</i> 'to
mark'; : The basic dictionary meaning of a word without any of its associated
meanings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ellipsis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>elleipein</i> 'to
fall short [of a perfect circle]'; : Omission, a leaving out of something,
which is nevertheless still implied.<br />
<br />
<b>enjambement</b>, or <b>run-on lines</b> (Fr. <i>en</i> 'in'
+ <i>jambe</i> 'leg', <i>enjamber</i> 'encroach'; : In
enjambement the grammatical sense runs from one line of poetry to the next
without pause or punctuation; opposite of end-stopped line.<br />
<br />
<b>euphemism</b> (Gk. <i>eu</i> 'good' + <i>phanai</i> 'to
say'; : An attractive substitute for a harsh or unpleasant word or concept; a
less direct way of referring to something potentially offensive.<br />
<br />
<b>euphony</b> (Gk. <i>eu</i> 'good' + <i>phone</i> 'voice';
adj. <b>euphonious</b>;
'Good-sounding', melodious.<br />
<br />
<b>expletive</b> (L. <i>ex</i> 'out' + <i>plere</i> 'to
fill';: An unnecessary word or phrase used as a filler in speaking or writing
('you know') or as an aid to metrical regularity in verse ('oh'); an
exclamation or oath.<br />
<br />
<b>explication</b> (F. from L. <i>ex</i> 'out' + <i>plicare</i> 'to
fold'; : An explanation, analysis, or interpretation of a text.<br />
<br />
<b>genre</b> (F. from L. <i>genus</i> 'kind'; : A certain form
or style of writing; e.g. poetry, novel, essay.<br />
<br />
<b>hyperbole</b> (Gk. <i>hyper</i> 'over' + <i>ballein</i> 'to
throw', i.e., 'throw too far; excess'; : exaggeration, overstatement.<br />
<br />
<b>irony</b> (Gk. <i>eiron</i> 'dissemble ['disguise, pretend']
in speech'; also called <b>antiphrasis</b>; Gk. <i>anti</i> 'against'
+ <i>phrazein</i> 'to speak'; : In general, irony is the perception
of a clash between appearance and reality, between seems and is, or between
ought and is. Irony falls mainly into three categories: <b>(1) verbal:</b> meaning
something contrary to what the words seem to say; this assumes a tacit
understanding between speaker and listener as regards the true situation; <b>(2)
dramatic:</b> saying or doing something while unaware of its contrast with
the whole truth, i.e. verbal irony with the speaker's awareness erased; <b>(3)
situational:</b> events turning to the opposite of what is expected or
what should be (also called circumstantial irony or the irony of fate, or
cosmic irony), as when it rains on the Weather Bureau's annual picnic; the <i>ought</i> is
upended by the <i>is</i>. Situational irony is the very essence of both
comedy and tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">literal meaning</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (L. <i>littera</i> 'letter';
: the precise, plain meaning of a word or phrase in its simplest, original
sense, considered apart from its sense as a metaphor or other figure of speech;
in translation, a rendering as close as possible to the word-for-word plain
sense of the original.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">litotes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>litos</i> 'smooth,
simple, plain'; : A kind of irony: the assertion of something by the denial of
its opposite; 'Not bad.', This is no small matter.'<br />
<br />
<b>lyric</b> (Gk. <i>lyrikos</i> 'of a lyre : A poem, brief and
discontinuous, emphasizing sound and pictorial imagery rather than narrative or
dramatic movement. Lyrical poetry began in ancient Greece in connection with
music, as poetry sung for the most part to the accompaniment of a lyre.<br />
<br />
<b>metaphor</b> (Gk. <i>meta</i> 'over' + <i>pherein</i> 'to
bear'; The comparison of one thing to
another, treating something as if it were something else; a metaphor can be
plain, implied, or dead.<br />
<br />
<b>metathesis</b> (Gk. <i>meta</i> 'over' + <i>tithenai</i> 'place';
: Interchanging of letters, sounds or syllables within a word, e.g. Old English
brid became Modern English bird through metathesis; a modern example would
be <i>pretty, purty</i>.<br />
<br />
<b>metonymy</b> (Gk. <i>meta</i> 'other' + <i>onyma</i> 'name';
: 'Substitute meaning'; an associated idea names the item: "Homer is
hard." for "Reading Homer's poems is hard."<br />
<br />
<b>mixed metaphor</b> : Changed or contradictory metaphors in the same
discourse:, e.g. The population explosion has paved the way for new
intellectual growth. Mixed metaphors are considered a sign of poor writing in
English, but not necessarily in Chinese. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">monologue</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>monos</i> 'single'
+ <i>legein</i> 'to speak'; A text recited by one person alone.<br />
<br />
<b>narrator</b> (L. <i>narrare</i> 'to tell'; One who tells a story or narration.<br />
<br />
<b>neologism</b> (Gk. <i>neos</i> 'young, new' + <i>logos</i> 'word'; A newly coined word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">onomatopoeia</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk <i>onoma</i> 'name'
+ <i>poeia</i> 'making'; : The use of words formed or sounding like
what they signify; examples: <i>mew, mew; clang, clang; swish</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">oxymoron</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>oxys</i> 'sharp,
acid' + <i>moros</i> 'foolish' &reg; 'a pointed stupidity'; An apparently self-contradictory figure of
speech, e.g. 'a fearful joy', or 'the sonorous silence'.<br />
<br />
<b>paradox</b> (Gk. <i>para</i> 'side' + <i>dokein</i> 'to
think, seem', i.e., 'other than what you expect' An apparently untrue or self-contradictory
statement or circumstance that proves true upon reflection or when examined in
another light.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">parody</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Latin <i>parodia</i>,
Gk. <i>para-</i> 'beside, subsidiary' + <i>aidein</i> to
sing; a 'mock song'; A parody imitates
the serious manner and characteristic features of a particular literary work in
order to make fun of those same features. The humorist achieves parody by
exaggerating certain traits common to the work, much as a caricaturist creates
a humorous depiction of a person by magnifying and calling attention to the
person's most noticeable features. The term parody is often used synonymously
with the more general term <b>spoof</b>, which makes fun of the general
traits of a genre rather than one particular work or author. Often the subject
matter of a parody is comically inappropriate, such as using the elaborate,
formal diction of an epic to describe something trivial like washing socks or
cleaning a dusty attic. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">paralepsis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>para</i> 'side'
+ <i>leipein</i> 'to leave';
Mention of desire to omit something in order to emphasize it. Also
called <b>apophasis</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">parallelism</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>para</i> 'side
by side', <i>allelos</i> 'one another'; : The comparison of things by
placing them side by side; a one-to-one correspondence of form, meaning, or
both in a text.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">paraphrase</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>paraphrazein</i> 'to
say in other words;: A rendering in other words of the sense of a text or
passage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">personification</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (F. from L. <i>persona</i> 'actor's
face mask, character'; : The technique of treating abstractions, things or
animals as persons; a kind of metaphor; also called <b>anthropomorphism</b> (Gk.<i>anthropos</i> 'man'
+ <i>morphe</i> 'form').<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">poetic license</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (L. <i>licere</i> 'to
be permitted'; : The liberty taken by a poet who achieves special effects by
ignoring the conventions (e.g. grammar) of prose.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">point of view</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> The vantage point from which
a story is told or an account given. "I", or "he/she", etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">prose</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (L. <i>prosa</i>,
from <i>prorsa (oratio)</i> 'direct speech'; Ordinary writing
patterned on speech, as distinct from poetry (Gk. <i>poiein</i> 'to
make').<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">prosody</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Gk. <i>pros</i> 'to'
+ <i>oide</i> 'song, ode';: The analysis and description of meters;
metrics; the patterns of accent in a language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pun</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (clipped form of It. <i>puntiglio</i> 'fine
point'; : A figure of speech involving a play on two or more words which sound
similar but have different meanings, or refer to different things; usually
humorous, but sometimes with serious intent<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">redundancy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (L. <i>re(d)</i> [an
intensifier] + <i>undare</i> 'surge, swell' < <i>unda</i> 'wave';
: 'Overflowing'; repetitive, using many more words than necessary; also
called <b>pleonasm</b>, <b>tautology</b>.<br />
<br />
<b>refrain</b> (F. from Latin <i>refringere</i> 'to break
off'; A set phrase or chorus recurring
throughout a song or poem, usually at the end of a stanza or at some other
regular interval.<br />
<br />
<b>repetition</b> (L. <i>re</i> 'again' + <i>petere</i> 'to
demand, rush at, fall';: Using the same sound, word, etc. more than once; may
be used for emphasis or other reasons.<br />
<br />
<b>rhetorical question</b> (Gk. <i>rhetor</i> 'orator'; : A
question posed for rhetorical effect, usually with a self-evident answer.<br />
<br />
<b>rhyme scheme</b> (ME, F. <b>rime</b>; Gk. <i>schema</i> 'a
form'; The pattern created by the rhyming words of a poem or stanza. Usually
Latin letters are used to designate the same rhyme, e.g. abab cdcd.<br />
<br />
<b>satire</b> (L. <i>satira</i> or <i>satura</i> 'satire,
poetic medley'; : Literature that ridicules vices and follies.<br />
<br />
<b>scansion</b> (L. <i>scandere</i> 'to climb, mount'; : A
system for analyzing and marking poetical meters and feet.<br />
<br />
<b>shaped poem</b> (L. <i>carmen figuratum</i>; also called <b>figure
poem</b>; : A poem constructed so that its shape on a page presents a picture
of its subject.<br />
<br />
<b>simile</b> (L. 'a likeness'; : The comparison of one thing to another
using the word, or a word meaning, <i>like</i>.<br />
<br />
<b>sound symbolism</b> : A relationship between the sound structure and/or
qualities of a word and its referent.<br />
<br />
<b>stanza</b> (vul. L. <i>stantia</i> 'standing';: Any grouping
of lines in a separate unit in a poem; sometimes called a <b>verse</b>.<br />
<br />
<b>synaesthesia</b> (Gk. <i>syn</i> 'together' + <i>aisthesis</i> 'sense-impression'; Close association or confusion of sense
impressions. The result is essentially a metaphor, transferring qualities of
one sense to another, e.g. a 'loud color'.<b><br />
<br />
synecdoche</b> (Gk. <i>synekdoche</i> 'to receive
together'; Reference to something by
just a part of it. "New York won the World Series," instead of
"The New York Yankees won the World Series." See also: <b>metonymy</b>.<br />
<br />
<b>synonym</b> (Gk. <i>syn</i> 'together' + <i>onyma</i> 'name';
: A word that means the same or almost the same as another.<b><br />
<br />
tone</b> (Gk. <i>tonos</i> 'stretching, tone'; : An author's
revealed attitude toward his or her subject or audience: sympathy, longing,
amusement, shock, sarcasm, etc.<br />
<br />
<b>understatement</b> ( An ironic minimizing of a fact in order to
emphasize it; <b>meiosis</b> (Gk. <i>meioun</i> 'to make
smaller').<br />
<br />
<b>verse</b> (L. <i>vertere</i> 'to turn'): (1) One line of poetry; (2) a stanza; (3)
poetry in general; (4) light
poetry as opposed to serious.<b><br />
<br />
zeugma</b> (Gk. 'yoke'; The
technique of using one word to yoke two or more others for ironic or amusing
effect, achieved when as least one of the yoked is a misfit, e.g. "He took
leave and his hat."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Unit 3: Prose – A Brief Introduction
to the Literary Forms<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo20; mso-outline-level: 2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ESSAY
AND ITS TYPES ( APHORISTIC, PERIODIC, SATIRICAL, CRITICAL) <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Essay: Origin and Definition<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Essay is derived from a French
word essayer, which
means to attempt, or to try. An essay is a short form of
literary composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives personal
opinion of an author. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A famous English essayist Aldous Huxley defines essays as, “a literary
device for saying almost everything about almost anything.” Oxford
Dictionary describes it as “a short
piece of writing on a particular subject.” In simple words, we can
define it as a scholarly work in writing that provides the author’s
personal argument. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1) The expository essay</span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is it?</span></strong><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
is a writer’s explanation of a short theme, idea or issue.<br />
<br />
The key here is that you are explaining an issue, theme or idea to your
intended audience. Your reaction to a work of literature could be in the form
of an expository essay, for example if you decide to simply explain your
personal response to a work. The expository essay can also be used to give a
personal response to a world event, political debate, football game, work of
art and so on.<br />
<b><br />
<strong>What are its most important qualities?</strong><br />
</b>You want to get and, of course, keep your reader’s attention. So, you
should:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Have
a well defined thesis. Start with a thesis statement/research
question/statement of intent. Make sure you answer your question or do
what you say you set out to do. Do not wander from your topic. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Provide
evidence to back up what you are saying. Support your arguments with facts
and reasoning. Do not simply list facts, incorporate these as examples
supporting your position, but at the same time make your point as
succinctly as possible. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
essay should be concise. Make your point and conclude your essay. Don’t
make the mistake of believing that repetition and over-stating your case
will score points with your readers.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2) The persuasive essay<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<strong><span style="font-weight: normal;">What is it?</span></strong><br />
</span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This is the type of essay where you try to convince the
reader to adopt your position on an issue or point of view.<br />
<br />
Here your rationale, your argument, is most important. You are presenting an
opinion and trying to persuade readers, you want to win readers over to your
point of view.<br />
</span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<strong><span style="font-weight: normal;">What are its most important qualities?</span></strong></span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Have
a definite point of view. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Maintain
the reader’s interest. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use
sound reasoning. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use
solid evidence. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Don’t
get so sentimental or so passionate that you lose the reader, as Irish
poet W. B. Yeats put it:<br />
<em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The best
lack all conviction, while the worst</span></em><br />
<em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Are full of
passionate intensity</span></em><o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Your
purpose is to convince someone else so don’t overdo your language and
don’t bore the reader. And don’t keep repeating your points! <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3. Aphoristic Essays:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<a href="http://literarydevices.net/tag/aphorism/"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Aphorism</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a
concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/moral/"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">moral</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">and literary principles.</span> To qualify as an
aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a
terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings as well as in our
daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a universal
acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists and sportsman
and other individuals are remembered for their famous aphoristic statements.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Aphorisms
often come with a pinch of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/humor/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">humor</span></a>, which makes them
more appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/cliche/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cliché</span></a>s are different
forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from generation to
generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5.
Periodical essay: <span style="background: white;">A periodical essay is a type
of prose non-fiction published in a periodical. A periodical is a type of
serial publication such as a magazine or newspaper that appears at regular
intervals. It often is compiled by a publisher or editor by assembling works
commissioned from or submitted by several authors. In England, periodicals
flourished from the 18th century<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="background: white;">4. Satirical Essays</span></b><span style="background: white;">: </span></span>Satirical essay writing is a style of writing that uses
satire to criticize or poke fun at a subject. A satirical writer often uses
such devices as hyperbole and irony to get his point across. Satirical essays
are often aimed at political candidates, celebrities or situations that are
absurd. The satire writer often seeks to provide relevant, useful, eye-opening
information within the scope of his essay. Learning to write satirically is
easy once you understand the techniques used for the style and the purpose of
your content.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5. Critical essays: <span style="background: white;">A</span></span></b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
critical essay is an analysis of a text such as a book, film, article, or
painting. The goal of this type of paper is to offer a text or an
interpretation of some aspect of a text or to situate the text in a broader
context. For example, a critical analysis of a book might focus on the tone of
the text to determine how that tone influences the meaning of the text overall.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE SHORT STORY:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition:
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> short story <span style="background: white;">is fictional
work of prose that is shorter in length than a novel. Edgar Allan Poe, in his
essay "The Philosophy of Composition," said that a short story should
be read in one sitting, anywhere from a half hour to two hours. In contemporary
fiction, a short story can range from 1,000 to 20,000 words.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Because of the
shorter length, a short story usually focuses on one plot, one main character
(with a few additional minor characters), and one central theme, whereas a
novel can tackle multiple plots and themes, with a variety of prominent characters.
Short stories also lend themselves more to experimentation — that is, using
uncommon prose styles or literary devices to tell the story. Such uncommon
styles or devices might get tedious, and downright annoying, in a novel, but
they may work well in a short story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Five
important parts of a Short Story:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo21; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SETTING</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">--
The time and location in which a story takes place is called the setting.
For some stories the setting is very important, while for others it is
not. There are several aspects of a story's setting to consider when
examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or all, may be present in a
story):<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo21; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PLOT</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">--
The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea; It
is the sequence of events in a story or play. The plot is a planned,
logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and end. The short
story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There are
five essential parts of plot:<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo21; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CONFLICT</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">--
Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot.
It is the opposition of forces which ties one incident to another and makes the
plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open arguments, rather it is
any form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story
there may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle
with many minor ones.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are two types of conflict:<br />
1) <b>External</b> - A struggle with a force outside one's self.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2) <b>Internal</b> - A
struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision, overcome pain,
quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are four kinds of conflict:<br />
1) <b>Man vs. Man</b> (physical) - The leading character struggles
with his physical strength against other men, forces of nature, or animals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2) <b>Man vs. Circumstances</b> (classical)
- The leading character struggles against fate, or the circumstances of life
facing him/her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3) <b>Man vs. Society</b> (social)
- The leading character struggles against ideas, practices, or customs of other
people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4) <b>Man vs.
Himself/Herself</b> (psychological) - The leading character
struggles with himself/herself; with his/her own soul, ideas of right or wrong,
physical limitations, choices, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>4.
CHARACTER</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-- There are two
meanings for the word character:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
1) The person in a work of fiction.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
2) The characteristics of a person.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>Persons in a work of fiction</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-<span class="apple-converted-space"><b> </b></span><b>Antagonist and Protagonist</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
Short stories use few characters. One character is clearly central to the
story with all major events having some importance to this character - he/she
is the PROTAGONIST. The opposer of the main character is called the
ANTAGONIST.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b>5.
POINT OF VIEW</b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Point of view, or
p.o.v., is defined as the angle from which the story is told.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
1. <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Innocent Eye</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-
The story is told through the eyes of a child (his/her judgment being different
from that of an adult) .</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
2. <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Stream of Consciousness</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-
The story is told so that the reader feels as if they are inside the head of
one character and knows all their thoughts and reactions.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
3. <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>First Person</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-
The story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who
interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters (using pronouns I,
me, we, etc). The reader sees the story through this person's eyes as
he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or feels.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
4. <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Omniscient</b>- The author can narrate the story using the
omniscient point of view. He can move from character to character, event
to event, having free access to the thoughts, feelings and motivations of his
characters and he introduces information where and when he chooses. There
are two main types of omniscient point of view:</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
a) <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Omniscient Limited</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-
The author tells the story in third person (using pronouns they, she, he, it,
etc). We know only what the character knows and what the author allows
him/her to tell us. We can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if the
author chooses to reveal them to us.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
b) <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Omniscient Objective</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>–
The author tells the story in the third person. It appears as though a
camera is following the characters, going anywhere, and recording only what is
seen and heard. There is no comment on the characters or their thoughts.
No interpretations are offered. The reader is placed in the position of
spectator without the author there to explain. The reader has to interpret
events on his own.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br />
THEME<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-- The theme in a piece of
fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the
author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The
theme may be the author's thoughts about a topic or view of human nature.
The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is saying and he
may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol,
allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span> </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo21; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><!--[endif]--><b>BIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHY<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="background: white;">A
biography is an account or detailed description about the life of a person. It
entails basic facts such as childhood, education, career, relationships, family
and death. Biography is a literary<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/genre/"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext;">genre</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">that
portrays the experiences of all these events occurred in the life of a person
mostly in a chronological order. Unlike a resume or profile, biography provides
life story of a subject, highlighting different aspects of his/her life. The
person or the writer, who writes biographies, is called as a biographer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Types of
Biography<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
There
are three types of biography:</div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Autobiography<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
It
tells the story of a person’s life, who writes it himself or herself. However,
sometimes he/she may take guidance from a ghostwriter or collaborator.</div>
<h3 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Biography<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
It
narrates the life story of a person written by another person or writer. It is
further divided into five categories:</div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Popular
biography<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical
biography<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Literary
biography<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reference
biography<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fictional
biography<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Memoir<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
This
is a more focused term than an autobiography or a biography. In a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/memoir/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">memoir</span></a>, a writer
himself/herself narrates the details of a particular event or situation
occurred in his/her lifetime.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Kinds</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
Biographies are difficult to classify. It is easily
recognizable that there are many kinds of lifewriting, but one kind can easily
shade into another; no standard basis for classification has yet been
developed. A fundamental division offers, however, a useful preliminary view: biographies
written from personal knowledge of the subject and those written from research.</div>
<h2 style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Firsthand
knowledge</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
The biography that results from what might be called a
vital relationship between the biographer and his subject often represents a
conjunction of two main biographical forces: a desire on the part of the writer
to preserve “the earthly pilgrimage of a man,” as the 19th-century historian<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="" name="ref505292"></a><a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Carlyle"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas Carlyle</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>calls it<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">(Critical and Miscellaneous
Essays</span></em>, 1838), and an awareness that he has the special
qualifications, because of direct observation and access to personal papers, to
undertake such a task. This kind of biography is, in one form or another, to be
found in most of the cultures that preserve any kind of written biographical
tradition, and it is commonly to be found in all ages from the earliest
literatures to the present. In its first manifestations, it was often produced
by, or based upon the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="" name="ref505293"></a><a href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/scripture"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">recollections</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of, the disciples of a religious
figure—such as the biographical fragments concerning Buddha, portions of the
Old Testament, and the Christian gospels. It is sometimes called “source
biography” because it preserves original materials, the testimony of the
biographer</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">TRAVEL
WRITING<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The genre of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>travel
literature</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>encompasses<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outdoor_literature" title="Outdoor literature"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">outdoor literature</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide_book" title="Guide book"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">guide books</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing" title="Nature writing"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nature
writing</span></a>, and travel<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoir" title="Memoir"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">memoir</span></a>.
</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
One early travel memoirist in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Western literature</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>was<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pausanias</span></a>, a Greek geographer of the 2nd
century AD. In the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">early modern period</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">James Boswell</span></a>'s<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1786) helped shape travel memoir as a
genre.</div>
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The travel genre was a fairly common genre in medieval<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Arabic
literature</span></a>. </div>
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Travel literature became popular during the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Dynasty" title="Song Dynasty"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Song Dynasty</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(960–1279) of medieval<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">China</span></a>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The genre was called 'travel record
literature' and was often written in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">narrative</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose" title="Prose"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">prose</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay" title="Essay"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">essay</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diary" title="Diary"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">diary</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>style</div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One of the earliest known records of taking pleasure in
travel, of travelling for the sake of travel and writing about it, is </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Petrarch" title="Francesco Petrarch"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Petrarch</span></a><span style="background: white;">'s (1304–1374) ascent of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Ventoux" title="Mount Ventoux"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Mount Ventoux</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">in
1336. He states that he went to the mountaintop for the pleasure of seeing the
top of the famous height.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Travel books range in style from the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary" title="Documentary"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">documentary</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">to
the evocative, from literary to journalistic, and from the humorous to the
serious. They are often associated with tourism and include<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide_book" title="Guide book"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">guide books</span></a><span style="background: white;">, meant to educate
the reader about destinations, provide advice for visits, and inspire readers
to travel. Travel writing may be found on web sites, in periodicals, and in
books. It has been produced by a variety of writers, such as travelers,
military officers, missionaries, explorers, scientists, pilgrims, social and
physical scientists, educators, and migrants.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Travel literature often intersects with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay" title="Essay"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">essay</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">writing, as in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._S._Naipaul" title="V. S. Naipaul"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">V. S. Naipaul</span></a><span style="background: white;">'s<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India:_A_Wounded_Civilization" title="India: A Wounded Civilization"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">India: A Wounded Civilization</span></a></i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1976), whose trip became the occasion
for extended observations on a nation and people.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide_book" title="Guide book"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">guide book</span></a></b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>travel
guide</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is "a book of
information about a place, designed for the use of visitors or tourists".
An early example is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_West_(priest)" title="Thomas West (priest)"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas West</span></a><span style="background: white;">'s, guide to the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lake District</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">published
in 1778.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_literature#cite_note-14"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[</span></a><o:p></o:p></sup></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
travel journal</span></b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, also called road
journal, is a record made by a traveller, sometimes in diary form, of the
traveler's experiences, written during the course of the journey and later
edited for publication. This is a long-established literary format. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some
fictional travel stories are related to travel literature. Although it may be
desirable in some contexts to distinguish <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">fictional</span></a> from<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">non-fictional</span></a> works,
such distinctions have proved notoriously difficult to make in practice, as in
the famous instance of the travel writings of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Marco Polo</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mandeville" title="John Mandeville"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">John
Mandeville</span></a>. Examples of fictional works of travel literature based
on actual journeys are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fiction:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Joseph Conrad</span></a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Heart of
Darkness</span></a></i> (1899), which has its origin in an actual voyage
Conrad made up the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Congo" title="River Congo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">River Congo</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">UNIT
IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">BIBLE TRANSLATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">TYNDALE
BIBLE:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The <b>Tyndale Bible</b> generally
refers to the body of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biblical translations</span></a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William
Tyndale</span></a> (<i>c.</i></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria Math","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1494–1536). Tyndale’s Bible is credited
with being the first English translation to work directly from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew" title="Hebrew"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hebrew</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Greek</span></a> texts.
Furthermore, it was the first English biblical translation that was
mass-produced as a result of new advances in the art of printing. The
term <i>Tyndale's Bible</i> is not strictly correct, because Tyndale
never published a complete Bible. Prior to his execution Tyndale had only
finished translating the entire <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">New Testament</span></a> and
roughly half of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Old Testament</span></a>. Of the latter, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentateuch" title="Pentateuch"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pentateuch</span></a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Jonah" title="Book of Jonah"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jonah</span></a> and
a revised version of the book of Genesis were published during his lifetime.
His other Old Testament works were first used in the creation of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Bible" title="Matthew Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Matthew Bible</span></a> and
also heavily influenced every major English translation of the Bible that
followed. The chain of events that led to the creation of Tyndale’s New
Testament possibly began in 1522, the year Tyndale acquired a copy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Martin Luther</span></a>’s
German New Testament. Inspired by Luther’s work, Tyndale began a translation
into English using a Greek text "compiled by Erasmus from several
manuscripts older and more authoritative than the Latin Vulgate" of St.
Jerome (A.D. c.340-420), the only translation authorized by the Roman Catholic
Church. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tyndale made his purpose known to the
Bishop of London at the time, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert_Tunstall" title="Cuthbert Tunstall"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cuthbert
Tunstall</span></a>, but was refused permission to produce this<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_heresy#Catholic_understanding" title="Christian heresy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">"heretical"</span></a> text. Thwarted in
England, Tyndale moved to the continent. A partial edition was put into
print in 1525 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cologne</span></a>. But before the work could be completed, Tyndale was
betrayed to the authorities and forced to flee to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Worms</span></a>,
where the first complete edition of his New Testament was published in 1526. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Two revised versions were later
published in 1534 and 1536, both personally revised by Tyndale himself. After
his death in 1536 Tyndale’s works were revised and reprinted numerous times and
are reflected in more modern versions of the Bible, including, perhaps most
famously, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_James_Bible" title="King James Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">King James Bible</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tyndale's Pentateuch was published at
Antwerp by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merten_de_Keyser" title="Merten de Keyser"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Merten de Keyser</span></a> in 1530. His English
version of the book of Jonah was published the following year. This was
followed by his revised version of the book of Genesis in 1534. Tyndale
translated additional Old Testament books including Joshua, Judges, first and
second Samuel, first and second Kings and first and second Chronicles, but they
were not published and have not survived in their original forms. When
Tyndale was martyred these works came to be in the possession of one his
associates <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rogers_(Bible_editor_and_martyr)" title="John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">John Rogers</span></a>. These
translations would be influential in the creation of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Bible" title="Matthew Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Matthew Bible</span></a> which
was published in 1537. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tyndale used a number of sources when
carrying out his translations of both the New and Old Testaments. When
translating the New Testament, he referred to the third edition (1522) of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Erasmus</span></a>’s
Greek New Testament, often referred to as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Text" title="Received Text"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Received Text</span></a>.
Tyndale also used Erasmus' Latin New Testament, as well as Luther’s German
version and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Vulgate</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Scholars believe that Tyndale stayed
away from using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Wycliffe's Bible</span></a> as a source because he
didn’t want his English to reflect that which was used prior to the
Renaissance. The sources Tyndale used for his translation of the Pentateuch however
are not known for sure. Scholars believe that Tyndale used either the Hebrew
Pentateuch or the Polyglot Bible, and may have referred to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Septuagint</span></a>.
It is suspected that his other Old Testament works were translated directly
from a copy of the Hebrew Bible. He also made abundant use of Greek and Hebrew
grammars. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tyndale’s translations were condemned
in England, where his work was banned and copies burned. Catholic
officials, prominently<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas More</span></a>, charged that he had purposely
mistranslated the ancient texts in order to promote <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">anti-clericalism</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">heretical</span></a>views, In
particular they cited the terms “church”, “priest”, “do penance” and “charity”,
which became in the Tyndale translation “congregation”, “senior” (changed to
"elder" in the revised edition of 1534), “repent” and “love”,
challenging key doctrines of the Roman Church. Betrayed to church officials in
1536, he was defrocked in an elaborate public ceremony and turned over to the
civil authorities to be strangled to death and burned at the stake. His last
words are said to have been, "Lord! Open the King of England's eyes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Catholic
Church</span></a> had long proclaimed that the church was an institution.
The word <i>church</i> to them had come to represent the
organizational structure that was the Catholic Church. Tyndale’s
translation was seen as a challenge to this doctrine because he was seen to
have favored the views of reformers like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Martin Luther</span></a> who
proclaimed that the church was made up and defined by the believers, or in
other words their congregations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">radical reformers</span></a> preached that the true
church was the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_church" title="Invisible church"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">“invisible” church</span></a>, that the church is wherever
true Christians meet together to preach the word of God. To these reformers the
structure of the Catholic Church was unnecessary and its very existence proved
that it was in fact not the “true” Church. When Tyndale decided that the
Greek word </span><i><span lang="EL" style="font-family: "Cambria Math","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EL; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ἐ</span></i><i><span lang="EL" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EL; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">κκλησία</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (ekklesia)</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> was more accurately
translated <i>congregation,</i> he was undermining the entire
structure of the Catholic Church.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Many of the reform movements believed
in the authority of scripture alone. To them it dictated how the church should
be organized and administered. By changing the translation from <i>church</i> to <i>congregation</i> Tyndale
was providing ammunition for the beliefs of the reformers. Their belief that
the church was not a visible systematized institution but a body defined by the
believers themselves was now to be found directly in the Holy Scripture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Furthermore, Tyndale’s use of the
word <i>congregation</i> attacked the Catholic Church’s doctrine that
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laity" title="Laity"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">lay members</span></a> and
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">clergy</span></a> were
to be separate. If the true church is defined as a congregation, as the
common believers, then the Catholic Church’s claim that the clergy were of a
higher order than the average Christian and that they had different roles to
play in the religious process no longer held sway.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tyndale’s translation of the Greek
word </span><i><span lang="EL" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EL; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">πρεσβύτερος</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (presbuteros)</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> to mean
elder instead of priest also challenged the doctrines of the Catholic
Church. In particular, it asked what the role of the clergy should be and
whether or not they were to be separated from the common believers as they were
in the current Catholic system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The role of the priest in the Catholic
Church had been to lead religious sermons and ceremonies like mass, to read the
scripture to the people, and to administer the sacraments. They were considered
separate from the common believers. In many reform movements a group
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder_(Christianity)" title="Elder (Christianity)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">elders</span></a> would lead the church and take
the place of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood_(Catholic_Church)" title="Priesthood (Catholic Church)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Catholic priests</span></a>. These elders were not a
separate class from the common believers; in fact, they were usually selected
from amongst them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Many reformers believed in the idea of
the “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_priesthood_(doctrine)" title="Universal priesthood (doctrine)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">priesthood of all believers</span></a>,”
which meant that every Christian was in fact a priest and had the right to read
and interpret scripture. Tyndale’s translation stripped away the scriptural
basis of Catholic clerical power. Priests no longer administered the church: it
was the job of the elders, which implied that the power rested in the hands of
the people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Catholic doctrine was also challenged
by Tyndale’s translation of the Greek <i>μετανοε</i></span><i><span style="font-family: "Cambria Math","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ῖ</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">τε (metanoeite)</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> as <i>repent</i> instead
of <i>do penance</i>. This translation attacked the Catholic
sacrament of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penance" title="Penance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">penance</span></a>. Tyndale’s version of scripture backed up the views of
reformers like Luther who had taken issue with the Catholic practice of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrament_of_Penance_(Catholic_Church)" title="Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sacramental penance</span></a>.
Reformers believed that it was through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">faith alone</span></a> that
one was saved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This differed from the views of the
Catholic Church, which followed the belief that salvation was granted to those
who lived according to what the church told them and thus participated in
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">seven sacraments</span></a>. Tyndale’s
translation challenged the belief that one had to do penance for one’s sins.
According to Tyndale’s New Testament and other reformers, all a believer had to
do was repent with a sincere heart, and God would forgive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Tyndale Bible also challenged the
Catholic Church in many other ways. The fact that it was translated into a
vernacular language made it available to the common people. This allowed
everyone access to scripture and gave the common people the ability to read (if
they were literate) and interpret scripture how they wished, exposing it to the
threat of being "twisted to their own destruction, as they do the other
scriptures" (2 Peter 3.16) instead of relying on the church for their
access to scripture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The main threat that Tyndale’s Bible
caused to the Catholic Church is best summed up by Tyndale himself when he
tells us of his reason for creating his translation in the first place.
Tyndale’s purpose was to “[cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more
scripture] than the clergy of the day” many of which were poorly educated.
Thus Tyndale sought to undermine the Catholic Church’s grip on both the access
to and interpretation of scripture. They were no longer needed as intercessors
between the people and God.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">COVERDALE
BIBLE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">The <b>Coverdale
Bible</b>, compiled by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myles_Coverdale" title="Myles Coverdale"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Myles
Coverdale</span></a> and published in 1535, was the first complete <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Modern
English</span></a> translation of the Bible (not just the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Old Testament</span></a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">New Testament</span></a>),
and the first complete printed translation into English (cf. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Wycliffe's
Bible</span></a> in manuscript). The later editions (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folio_(printing)" title="Folio (printing)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">folio</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarto" title="Quarto"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">quarto</span></a>)
published in 1539 were the first complete Bibles printed in England. The 1539
folio edition carried the royal license and was therefore the first officially
approved Bible translation in English.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">The
place of publication of the 1535 edition was long disputed. The printer was
assumed to be either Froschover in Zurich or Cervicornus and Soter (in Cologne
or Marburg). Since the discovery of Guido Latré, in 1997, the printer has been
identified as<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merten_de_Keyser" title="Merten de Keyser"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Merten de Keyser</span></a>, in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Antwerp</span></a>.
The publication was partly financed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_van_Meteren" title="Jacobus van Meteren"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jacobus van Meteren</span></a>, in Antwerp, whose
sister-in-law, Adriana de Weyden, married <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rogers_(c.1500%E2%80%931555)" title="John Rogers (c.1500–1555)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">John Rogers</span></a>. The other backer of the
Coverdale Bible was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_van_Meteren" title="Jacobus van Meteren"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jacobus van Meteren</span></a>’s nephew, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonard_Ortels&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Leonard Ortels (page does not exist)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Leonard Ortels</span></a>(†1539),
father of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Abraham Ortelius</span></a> (1527–1598), the famous
humanist geographer and cartographer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;">Although
Coverdale was also involved in the preparation of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bible" title="Great Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Great Bible</span></a> of
1539, the Coverdale Bible continued to be reprinted. The last of over 20
editions of the whole Bible, or its New Testament, appeared in 1553.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myles_Coverdale" title="Myles Coverdale"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Coverdale</span></a> based
his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">New Testament</span></a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Tyndale’s</span></a> translation.
For the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Old Testament</span></a>, Coverdale used Tyndale’s
published <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentateuch" title="Pentateuch"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pentateuch</span></a> and possibly his published <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonah" title="Jonah"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jonah</span></a>. He apparently did
not make use of any of Tyndale’s other, unpublished, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Old Testament</span></a> material
(cf. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Bible" title="Matthew Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Matthew Bible</span></a>). Instead, Coverdale himself
translated the remaining books of the Old Testament and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Apocrypha</span></a>. Not being a Hebrew or Greek scholar,
he worked primarily from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">German</span></a> Bibles—<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Luther’s
Bible</span></a> and the Swiss-German version (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Bible" title="Zürich Bible"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zürich Bible</span></a>)
of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zwingli</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Jud" title="Leo Jud"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Juda</span></a>—and
Latin sources including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Vulgate</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>UNIVERSITY WITS<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>University Wits</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is a phrase used to name a group of
late 16th century<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">English</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">playwrights</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and pamphleteers who were educated at
the universities (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_university" title="Oxford university"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Oxford</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_university" title="Cambridge university"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cambridge</span></a>) and who became popular secular
writers. Prominent members of this group were<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Christopher Marlowe</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)" title="Robert Greene (dramatist)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Robert Greene</span></a>, and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Nashe" title="Thomas Nashe"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas Nashe</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cambridge</span></a>, and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lyly" title="John Lyly"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">John Lyly</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Lodge" title="Thomas Lodge"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas Lodge</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peele" title="George Peele"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">George Peele</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Oxford</span></a>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kyd" title="Thomas Kyd"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas Kyd</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is also sometimes included in the
group, though he is not believed to have studied at university.</div>
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This diverse and
talented loose association of London writers and dramatists set the stage for
the theatrical Renaissance of Elizabethan England. They are identified as among
the earliest professional writers in English, and prepared the way for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William Shakespeare</span></a>.</div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
term "University Wits" was not used in their lifetime, but was coined
by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Saintsbury" title="George Saintsbury"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">George Saintsbury</span></a><span style="background: white;">, a 19th-century
journalist and author.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Edward Albert in his <i>History of
English Literature</i> (1979) argues that the plays of the University Wits
had several features in common:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a) There was a
fondness for heroic themes, such as the lives of great figures like Mohammed
and Tamburlaine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b) Heroic themes needed heroic
treatment: great fullness and variety; splendid descriptions, long swelling
speeches, the handling of violent incidents and emotions. These qualities,
excellent when held in restraint, only too often led to loudness and disorder.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c) The style was also ‘heroic’. The
chief aim was to achieve strong and sounding lines, magnificent epithets, and
powerful declamation. This again led to abuse and to mere bombast, mouthing,
and in the worst cases to nonsense. In the best examples, such as in Marlowe,
the result is quite impressive. In this connexion it is to be noted that the
best medium for such expression was blank verse, which was sufficiently elastic
to bear the strong pressure of these expansive methods.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d) The themes
were usually tragic in nature, for the dramatists were as a rule too much in
earnest to give heed to what was considered to be the lower species of comedy.
The general lack of real humour in the early drama is one of its most prominent
features. Humour, when it is brought in at all, is coarse and immature. Almost
the only representative of the writers of real comedies is Lyly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G. K. Hunter argues that the new
"Humanistic education" of the age allowed them to create a
"complex commercial drama, drawing on the nationalisation of religious
sentiment" in such a way that it spoke to an audience "caught in the
contradictions and liberations history had imposed".While Marlowe is the
most famous dramatist among them, Robert Greene and Thomas Nashe were better
known for their controversial, risqué and argumentative pamphlets, creating an
early form of journalism. Greene has been called the "first notorious
professional writer".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "inherit","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">JACOBEAN AND ELIZABETHAN DRAMA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "inherit","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jacobean
drama is, simply, the drama that was written and performed during the
reign of Elizabeth’s successor, James I. But, as with <a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/resources/elizabethan-drama-theatre/" title="Elizabethan drama"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Elizabethan drama</span></a>, it is more than just the
plays written during the reign of a particular monarch: like Elizabethan drama,
Jacobean drama has its particular characteristics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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James
inherited a whole English drama culture. The English theatre was thriving as
well as any industry of the time, complete with about twenty London theatres
and scores of playwrights feeding them with new material every week.</div>
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By
the time James came to the throne the theatre had become a favourite leisure
activity in London, but the appetites of the theatre-going public were
changing. Audiences loved the humour and the many human situations – the tragic
and comic dramas – that were unfolding before them on the stage. But as time
went on the playwrights, reading the audience’s changing appetite, felt the
need to give them even more realistic representations of the society of which
they were a part.</div>
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Towards
the end of Elizabeth’s reign the plays were becoming more edgy and human
situations were becoming more exaggerated. Extreme violence was being portrayed
on the stage. The playwrights were focusing on the human being’s capacity for
selfishness, and exaggerating such Renaissance forces as human ambition, and
its effects. They were exploring the nature of evil, pushing things to the
extremes of human behaviour. Audiences flocked in to see those representations
of the society in which they lived, dramatised in exciting titillating stories,
full of sex and violence.</div>
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And so we have such plays as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/resources/shakespeare-contemporaries/john-webster-playwright/" title="John Webster playwright"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">John Webster’s</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">The White Devil</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">The Duchess of Malfi</span></em>,
with their highly intelligent characters perpetrating crimes and acts of
violence in the pursuit of their ambitions. We have<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/resources/shakespeare-contemporaries/thomas-middleton-playwright-2/" title="Thomas Middleton playwright"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Thomas Middleton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/resources/shakespeare-contemporaries/william-rowley-playwright/" title="William Rowley playwright"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William Rowley<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></a>collaborating
on a play that is still regarded as a model of Jacobean drama,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">The Changeling</span></em>, in
which we see a murderer cutting off the finger of his victim because the ring
he wants to steal won’t come off. That is mild, though, compared with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/king-lear-play/" title="Shakespeare's King Lear play"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Shakespeare’s<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>King Lear</em></span></a>,
where Lear’s daughter, Regan, tearing the old Gloucester’s eyes out, with the
cry ‘Out, vile jelly!’</div>
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Shakespeare, the most gentle and
sensitive of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/resources/shakespeare-contemporaries/" title="Elizabethan playwrights"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Elizabethan playwrights</span></a>, with his moving human dramas and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/shakespeares-plays/play-types/comedy-plays/" title="Shakespeare's comedy plays"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">his comedies</span></a>, but always with the lurking threat of violence,
threw himself into the spirit of the Jacobean theatre, applying his talent for
characterisation and plot to the new tastes. Iago, for example, the villain of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/othello-play/" title="Shakepeare's Othello"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Othello</span></a></span></em>, a psychopath who
limits his own violent acts but manipulates those around him to commit extreme
violence, culminating in Othello strangling Desdemona, is the arch Jacobean
protagonist – ambitious, intelligent, clever and manipulative. And, of course,
Iago survives as one of the most notorious villains of both the Elizabethan and
Jacobean periods – and of the whole of dramatic literature too.</div>
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To
sum up: The comic dramas of the Elizabethan theatre give way to harsh satire,
led by Ben Jonson: the Elizabethan tragic dramas give way to an obsession with
moral corruption and violent stories of revenge. In both forms the dramas of
the time show a cynical and pessimistic outlook on life.</div>
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A final, almost separate feature of
Jacobean theatre sprang from a passion of the king and queen – the musical
drama, and so the Jacobean theatre is full of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/shakespeares-plays/play-types/masque-plays/" title="Shakspeare's masque plays"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">masques – dramas with music and elaborate sets</span></a>. And here
again, the finest example of a Jacobean masque is Shakespeare’s<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><a href="http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/tempest-play/" title="Shakespeare's The Tempest play"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The Tempest</span></a></span></em>.</div>
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Some
of the most prominent of the Jacobean playwrights, apart from Shakespeare, are
Jonson, Webster, Tourneur, Beaumont, Fletcher, Middleton, Rowley, Marston,
Heyward, Ford and Dekker.</div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">COMEDY OF HUMOURS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The <b>comedy of humours</b> refers to a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre" title="Genre"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genre</span></a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama" title="Drama"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">dramatic</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">comedy</span></a> that
focuses on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_character" title="Fictional character"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">character</span></a> or range of characters, each of
whom exhibits two or more overriding traits or '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">humours</span></a>'
that dominates their personality, desires and conduct. This comic technique may
be found in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Aristophanes</span></a>, but the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">English</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">playwrights</span></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ben Jonson</span></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Chapman" title="George Chapman"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">George
Chapman</span></a> popularized the genre in the closing years of the
sixteenth century. In the later half of the seventeenth century, it was
combined with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_of_manners" title="Comedy of manners"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">comedy of manners</span></a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Restoration comedy</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The four '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humourism" title="Humourism"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">humours</span></a>'
or temperaments are: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choleric" title="Choleric"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">choleric</span></a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia" title="Melancholia"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">melancholic</span></a>;
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_temperaments#Sanguine" title="Four temperaments"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sanguine</span></a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatic" title="Phlegmatic"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">phlegmatic</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In Jonson’s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every_Man_in_His_Humour" title="Every Man in His Humour"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Every Man in His Humour</span></a></i> (acted
1598), which made this type of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">play</span></a> popular,
all the words and acts of Kitely are controlled by an overpowering suspicion
that his wife is unfaithful; George Downright, a country squire, must be
"frank" above all things; the country gull in town determines his
every decision by his desire to "catch on" to the manners of the city
gallant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_(play)" title="Induction (play)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Induction</span></a> to <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every_Man_out_of_His_Humour" title="Every Man out of His Humour"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Every Man out of His Humour</span></a></i> (1599)
Jonson explains his character-formula thus:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some one peculiar quality<br />
Doth so possess a man, that it doth draw<br />
All his affects, his spirits, and his powers,<br />
In their confluctions, all to run one way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The comedy of humours owes something to earlier
vernacular comedy but more to a desire to imitate the classical comedy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Plautus</span></a> and<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence" title="Terence"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Terence</span></a> and
to combat the vogue of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespearean_comedy" title="Shakespearean comedy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">romantic comedy</span></a>, as developed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William Shakespeare</span></a>. The satiric purpose of the
comedy of humours and its realistic method lead to more serious character
studies with Jonson’s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Alchemist_(play)" title="The Alchemist (play)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The Alchemist</span></a></i>. The humours each had
been associated with physical and mental characteristics; the result was a
system that was quite subtle in its capacity for describing types of
personality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";">Unit V<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";"><a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/comedy-of-manners.html" target="_blank" title="Comedy of Manners"><b><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Comedy of
Manners</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";">The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/comedy-of-manners.html" target="_blank" title="Comedy of Manners"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Comedy of Manners</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is a theatrical genre that was
uber-popular during the Restoration period. These comedies were bawdy and
dirty, with lots of hilarious (and scandalous) dialogue focusing on sex. Their
plot lines revolved around unfaithful wives, cuckolded husbands, and tricky
lovers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";">These comedies
made fun of people… and sometimes entire social classes. Everyone is made to
look ridiculous in these plays. People are stupid and gullible, or else they're
amoral and exploitative. But it was all done in the name of fun. Audiences went
to these plays during the Restoration period to laugh their heads off.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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For example, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_gloriosus" title="Miles gloriosus"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">miles glorious</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>("boastful soldier") in
ancient times, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fop" title="Fop"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">fop</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rake_(character)" title="Rake (character)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">rake</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>during the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_(England)" title="Restoration (England)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">English Restoration</span></a>, or an old person
pretending to be young.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Restoration comedy</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is used as a synonym for "comedy
of manners". The plot of the comedy, often concerned with scandal, is
generally less important than its witty dialogue. A great writer of comedies of
manners was<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Oscar Wilde</span></a>,
his most famous play being<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest" title="The Importance of Being Earnest"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The
Importance of Being Earnest</span></a>.</div>
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The comedy of manners
was first developed in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_comedy" title="New comedy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">new comedy</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ancient Greek</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">playwright</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander" title="Menander"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Menander</span></a>.
His style, elaborate plots, and stock characters were imitated by the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Roman</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>playwrights<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Plautus</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence" title="Terence"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Terence</span></a>,
whose comedies were widely known and copied during the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Renaissance</span></a>.
The best-known comedies of manners, however, may well be those of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">French</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>playwright<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Molière</span></a>,
who satirized the hypocrisy and pretension of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ancient régime</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in such plays as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27%C3%89cole_des_femmes" title="L'École des femmes"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">L'École des femmes</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(The School for Wives, 1662),<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Misanthrope" title="Le Misanthrope"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Le Misanthrope</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(The Misanthrope, 1666), and most famously<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartuffe" title="Tartuffe"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Tartuffe</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1664).</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Neoclassicism<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
In England,
Neoclassicism flourished roughly between 1660, when the Stuarts returned to the
throne, and the 1798 publication of Wordsworth's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Lyrical Ballads,</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>with its theoretical preface and
collection of poems that came to be seen as heralding the beginning of the
Romantic Age. Regarding English literature, the Neoclassical Age is typically
divided into three periods: the Restoration Age (1660-1700), the Augustan Age
(1700-1750), and the Age of Johnson (1750-1798). Neoclassical writers modeled
their works on classical texts and followed various esthetic values first
established in Ancient Greece and Rome. Seventeenth-century and
eighteenth-century Neoclassicism was, in a sense, a resurgence of classical
taste and sensibility, but it was not identical to Classicism. In part as a
reaction to the bold egocentrism of the Renaissance that saw man as larger than
life and boundless in potential, the neoclassicists directed their attention to
a smaller scaled concept of man as an individual within a larger social
context, seeing human nature as dualistic, flawed, and needing to be curbed by
reason and decorum. In style, neoclassicists continued the Renaissance value of
balanced antithesis, symmetry, restraint, and order. Additionally, they sought
to achieve a sense of refinement, good taste, and correctness. Their clothes
were complicated and detailed, and their gardens were ornately manicured and
geometrically designed. They resurrected the classical values of unity and
proportion and saw their art as a way to entertain and inform, a depiction of
humans as social creatures, as part of polite society. Their manner was
elitist, erudite, and sophisticated. The brooding social unrest that culminated
in the revolutions in the American colonies and in France toppled this
artificial refinement, and in the wake of those wars emerged portraits of the
single common worker or wanderer sketched against the vast natural landscape, a
character that came to be one of the chosen subjects of the Romantics in the
nineteenth century.</div>
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In the Restoration
Age, in poetry, the classical forms of the heroic couplet and the ode became
popular. With the opening of the theaters appeared plays written in couplets
and others in prose that fell in the category of the comedy of manners. Major
works include Milton's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Paradise
Lost</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(although it spans both
baroque and restoration in its style and subject) and Paul Bunyan's<em>Pilgrim's
Progress</em>. But Dryden's works, lesser by comparison to those by Milton and
Bunyan, more anticipated the Augustan Age to follow. In this second period
flourished the poetry of Alexander Pope, with his exquisite mastery of the
couplet in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Essay on Man</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1734); many of Pope's lines became
famous sayings that are familiar in modern times such as this one from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Essay on Criticism</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1711): "Fools rush in where
angels fear to tread." Also in the Augustan Age the rise of journalism and
its way of evolving into and shaping fiction writing is visible in the work of
Daniel Defoe, who began as a pamphleteer and ended by securing his place in the
canon of great novelists with such famous works as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Robinson Crusoe</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1719) and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Moll Flanders</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1722), which are fictions appearing
to be autobiographical. The Age of Johnson was dominated by Samuel Johnson and
the consummate work of his is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>The
Dictionary of the English Language</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1745-1755).
In drama, the comedy of manners continued to be popular, but in poetry, there
was a rise of the ballad and sentimental poetry as written by Thomas Gray,
William Cowper, Robert Burns, and George Crabbe, which in some ways anticipates
the style and sentiment of the romantics to follow. Additionally, there
appeared the novel of sensibility, particularly the work of Horace Walpole and
Ann Radcliffe, which in their sensationalism and emotionality anticipate the
Gothic novel of the nineteenth century.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anti-sentimental comedy<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Ant-sentimental comedy is comedy of manners less the vulgarity and profanity!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1
Wit is a form of intelligent humor, the ability to say or write things that are
clever and usually funny.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2
A wit is a person skilled at making clever and funny remarks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disguise<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1
Give someone or oneself, a different appearance in order to conceal one’s
identity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2
A disguise can be anything which conceals or change a person’s physical
appearance, including wig, glasses, makeup, costume or other ways. Camouflage
is type disguise for people, animals and objects. Hats, glasses change in their
type or wig, plastic surgery, and makeup are also used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
One of the primary functions of comic satire is to expose false appearances.
And this is why disguise is so important to dramatic comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
We notice the prevalence of images of disguise of thing not being what they
seen, in all of these situations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Anti-sentimental comedy is also called as the comedy of manners.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Comedy of manners<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The comedy of manners was originated in the new comedy of the Greek Menander
and developed by the Roman dramatists Plautus and Terence in the third and
second centuries B.C. This type of comedy is high polished in Restoration comedy.
Here, we can standards and decorum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Comedy of manner, amusing, cerebrate form of dramatic comedy that design and
often dried the manner and affection of a contemporary society. A comedy of
manner is anxious with social control and the questions of whether or not
character meets certain social standards. Often the covering social standards
is morally atomic but critical , the plot of such a comedy , usually concerned
with an dirty love affair or similarly odious matter , is subordinate to the
play’s frail atmosphere , witty dialogue, and bitter commentary on human
frailty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The comedy of manner , which was usually written by sophisticated authors for
member of their own coterie social class , has historically thrived in periods
and societies that combined material fortune and moral compass such was the
case in ancient Greece when Menander in angulated new comedy , the
initiator of comedy manners . Meander’s smooth style, elaborate plots, and
stock character were imitated by the roman poets Plautus and Terence, whose
comedies were widely known and copied during the renaissance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Rivals<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Sheridan’s purpose in writing ‘The Rivals’ was to entertain the audience making
them laugh and not by make them shed tears. ‘The Rival’ was written as a pure
and simple comedy. Though there are certainly a few sentimental scenes in this
play yet they are regarded as a apology of sentimentality. The scene between
Falkland and Julia are satire on the sentimental comedy which was in fashion in
those days and against with Sheridan revolted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
A brief examination of these would clearly reveal that Sheridan’s intention was
to prod fun at the sentimental comedy of the time. We find both Falkland and
Julia campy. The true character of Faulkland is indicate to us by Absolute‘s
description of him as the “most teasing, incorrigible lover”. Faulkland own
description of his state of mind about his beloved. Julia also makes him appear
absurd. He says that every hour is a demand for him to feel afraid on Julia’s
account. It rains, he feels afraid let some stream should have freeze her. If
the wind is sharp, he feels afraid let a boorish blow should skeptically affect
her health. The heat of the noon and evening may expose her health. All this is
funny and certainly not to be taken seriously. Sheridan is here banter the
excessive solicitude and concern which an over sentimental lover like Faulkland
experience when separated from his beloved. Sheridan seems to be pleading for
mental calmness even in the case of a burning lover.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Sheridan continues to portray faulkland in the same critical manner. When acres
appear and is questioned by absolute regarding Julia is activities in the
boonies, Acers replied that Julia’s has been enjoying herself thoroughly and
been having a cheery time now, a normal lover would feel hugely happy to learn
this. We expect the same reaction from faulkland because he had assured
absolute that he would feel happy “beyond measure” if he were positive that Julia
was flourishing and affable. But his actual reaction is quite different and
greatly gladdens us by its crap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
In one interview again shows him a ridiculous light. He subjects to a test in
order to convince himself of the frankness of love. The author’s dimension to
which an over sentimental lover can go and the author expects us to laugh at
this kind of lover.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Even Julia suffers from an extreme sentimentally and she is made to appear
absurd and ridicules for that reason. The manner in which she described her
lover to Lydia shows the kind of mentality that she has. In the two interviews
with Faukland Julia is again over flowing with emotion. We smile at the way she
behaves; we are diverted by her balance of emotion, we bogus at the subject
addition to her lover and her repeated pursuit to make up with him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The manner in which the other characters have been interpreted is also data of
the anti sentimental character of the play. Captain absolute is a practical man
and though he accepts the name and status of Ensign Beverley, he would not like
to forfeit the rich class which Lydia will bring him. Mrs.Malaprop is current,
practical woman whose attitude to marriage is business like Sir Anthony is a
practical worldly man. Bob acre is a country peasant with no romantic or
sentimental vanity but toward the end of the play he shows that he is more
practical than anybody else.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sentimental Comedy</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition
of Dictionary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Expressive
of or appealing to sentiment, especially the tender emotions and feelings, as
love, pity or nostalgia: a sentimental song.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Sentimental comedy is a kind of comedy that achieved some popularity with
respectable middle class audience in the 18<sup>th</sup>century. In contrast
with the fine doubt of English restoration comedy, it showed virtue repaid by
calm happiness; it plots, usually involving unbelievably good middle class
couple, emphasized pathos, rather than humor. Pioneered by Richard steel
in the funeral and more fully in the conscious covers, it flourished in middle
century with the French comedies larmoyante and in such plays on hug key’s
false delicacy. The pious moralizing of this tradition, which survived
into 19<sup>th</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>century
melodrama, was opposed in the 1770s by Sheridan and goldsmith, who attempted a
partial return to the comedy of manners.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
A sentimental comedy is comedy that simply address itself to the beholder ‘s’
love of goodness rather than humor. It shows the morality of its situations and
the virtue of character.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Sentimental comedy, a dramatic genre of the 18<sup>th</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>century, denoting plays in which
middle class protagonist beautifully overcomes a series of moral experience.
Such comedy aimed at creates tears rather than laughter. Sentimental comedies
reflected contemporary philosophical conception of human as inbredly good but
capable of being plumb awry through bad example. By an appeal to his noble
sentiments, a man could be reformed and set back on the path of virtue.
Although the plays accommodated character whose natures seemed overly virtuous,
and whose trials too easily confirm, they were still accepted by audience as
truthful representation of human, condition. Sentimental comedy had its roots
in early 18<sup>th</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>century
tragedy, which had tone of morality similar to that of sentimental comedy but
had sub line character and subject matter than sentimental comedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What does sentimental mean?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sentimental
is a thought, view or attitude particularly one based essentially on emotion
Instead of reason. The term may also refer to the expression of deep and
sensitive feeling particularly in art and literature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sentimental
is an expression of feeble emotion, memories, special events, music and many
other significant things can make a person sentimental.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The sentimental comedy did not last long. The sentimental soon decline into
sentimentality. This change gradually patent itself in the beginning of
sensibility to replace with and immortality in the comedy. In this sentimental
comedy of colley Cibber and Steele there was habitual morality and
sentimentality in place of shameful of the restoration comedy. This dramatist
dealt with the problems of, action, family and marriage in a tone that will no
longer shock manners and by virtue of tears they contributed to the elucidation
of souls. This dramatist aimed at instruction some moral lessons by cure
anguish innocent virtue to happiness and converting cheat into good character.
Thus these comedies lost the true spirit of comedy. There are no animation and
innocent glee created by wit and fun. Instead, these plays served the false
morality of the middle class. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The culture of sentiment and sensibility in eighteen century Europe is a
phenomenon of such proportion that it is often viewed as epoch defining. It can
be also defined as over inelegance of emotion and pathos and sympathy. It is
depends upon individual. We can also see that it has relation with pathos. in
Greek it means passion, or suffering or deep feeling but in modern criticism it
is applied in a much more limited way to a scene or passage that is designed to
evoke the feeling or tenderness, pity or sympathetic sorrow from the audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: #FAF8F5; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pre romantics<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
general term applied by modern literary historians to a number of developments
in late 18th-century culture that are thought to have prepared the ground for
Romanticism in its full sense. In various ways, these are all departures from
the orderly framework of neoclassicism and its authorized genres. The most
important constituents of preromanticism are the Sturm und Drang phase of
German literature; the primitivism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and of Ossianism;
the cult of sensibility in the sentimental novel; the taste for the sublime and
the picturesque in landscape; the sensationalism of the early Gothic novels;
the melancholy of English graveyard poetry; and the revival of interest in old
ballads and romances. These developments seem to have helped to give a new
importance to subjective and spontaneous individual feeling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-60121567777607682062017-05-05T23:51:00.001-07:002017-05-05T23:51:40.186-07:00Allied Paper – III – Myth and Literature - University of Madras : Revised Syllabus BA English [Sem 3]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 2: Greek and Roman Mythology<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Allied
Paper III – MYTH AND LITERATURE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
2: Greek and Roman Mythology<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hercules –(Cleaning of Aegean
Tables, Atlas and Hercules)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hercules
was the greatest of the mythological Greek heroes. He was famous for his
incredible strength, courage, and intelligence. Hercules is actually his Roman
name. The Greeks called him Heracles. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="202" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="249" /><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-IN">Birth of
Hercules</span></b><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: black; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none black; padding: 0in;"> </span><b><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN"> Hercules was a demigod. This means that he was
half god, half human. His father was Zeus, king of the gods, and his mother was
Alcmene, a beautiful human princess. Even as a baby Hercules was very strong.
When the goddess Hera, Zeus' wife, found out about Hercules, she wanted to kill
him. She snuck two large snakes into his crib. However, baby Hercules grabbed
the snakes by the neck and strangled them with his bare hands<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Growing Up <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Hercules mother, Alcmene, tried to
raise him like a regular kid. He went to school like mortal children, learning
subject like math, reading, and writing. However, one day he got mad and hit
his music teacher on the head with his lyre and killed him by accident.
Hercules went to live in the hills where he worked as a cattle herder. He
enjoyed the outdoors. One day, when Hercules was eighteen years old, a massive
lion attacked his herd. Hercules killed the lion with his bare hands. Hercules
is Tricked Hercules married a princess named Megara. They had a family and were
living a happy life. This made the goddess Hera angry. She tricked Hercules
into thinking his family was a bunch of snakes. Hercules killed the snakes only
to realize they were his wife and kids. He was very sad and riddled with guilt.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Oracle of
Delphi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN"> Hercules wanted to get rid of his guilt. He
went to get advice from the Oracle of Delphi. The Oracle told Hercules that he
must serve King Eurystheus for 10 years and do any task the king asked of him.
If he did this, he would be forgiven and wouldn't feel guilty any more. The
tasks the king gave him are called the Twelve Labors of Hercules. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">The Twelve
Labors of Hercules <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Each of the Twelve Labors of Hercules
is a story and adventure all to itself. The king did not like Hercules and
wanted him to fail. Each time he made the tasks more and more difficult. The
final task even involved traveling to the Underworld and bringing back the
fierce three-headed guardian Cerberus. Slay the Lion of Nemea Slay the Lernean
Hydra Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis Capture the Boar of Erymanthia Clean
the entire Augean stables in one day Slay the Stymphalian Birds Capture the
Bull of Crete Steal the Mares of Diomedes Get the girdle from the Queen of the
Amazons, Hippolyta Take the cattle from the monster Geryon Steal apples from
the Hesperides Bring back the three-headed dog Cerberus from the Underworld
Hercules not only used his strength and courage to accomplish the twelve
labors, but he also used his intelligence. For example, when stealing the
apples from the Hesperides, the daughters of Atlas, Hercules got Atlas to get
the apples for him. He agreed to hold up the world for Atlas while Atlas got
the apples. Then, when Atlas tried to go back on the deal, Hercules had to
trick Atlas to once again take the weight of the world on his shoulders.
Another example of Hercules using his brain was when he was tasked with
cleaning the Augean stables in a day. There were over 3,000 cows in the
stables. There was no way he could clean them by hand in a day. So Hercules
built a dam and caused a river to flow through the stables. They were cleaned
out in no time. Other Adventures Hercules went on a number of other adventures
throughout Greek mythology. He was a hero who helped people and fought
monsters. He continuously had to deal with the goddess Hera trying to trick him
and get him into trouble. In the end, Hercules died when his wife was tricked
into poisoning him. However, Zeus saved him and his immortal half went to
Olympus to become a god. Interesting Facts about Hercules Hercules was
originally only supposed to do ten labors, but the king said that the Augean
stables and the slaying of the hydra didn't count. This was because his nephew
Iolaus helped him kill the hydra and he took payment for cleaning out the
stables. Walt Disney made a feature film called Hercules in 1997. The story of
the Hercules and the Hesperides is part of the popular book The Titan's Curse
from the series Percy Jackson and the Olympians by Rick Riordan. Hercules wore
the pelt of the Lion of Nemea as a cloak. It was impervious to weapons and made
him even more powerful. He joined the Argonauts on their search for the Golden
Fleece. He also helped the gods in fighting the Giants.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">The Augean Stables Hercules Cleans Up</span></b><span lang="EN-IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">For the fifth labor, Eurystheus
ordered Hercules to clean up King Augeas' stables. Hercules knew this job would
mean getting dirty and smelly, but sometimes even a hero has to do these
things. Then Eurystheus made Hercules' task even harder: he had to clean up
after the cattle of Augeas in a single day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Now King Augeas owned more cattle than
anyone in Greece. Some say that he was a son of one of the great gods, and
others that he was a son of a mortal; whosever son he was, Augeas was very
rich, and he had many herds of cows, bulls, goats, sheep and horses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hercules went to King Augeas, and without telling anything about
Eurystheus, said that he would clean out the stables in one day, if Augeas
would give him a tenth of his fine cattle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Augeas couldn't believe his ears, but
promised. Hercules brought Augeas's son along to watch. First the hero tore a
big opening in the wall of the cattle-yard where the stables were. Then he made
another opening in the wall on the opposite side of the yard.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Next, he dug wide trenches to two
rivers which flowed nearby. He turned the course of the rivers into the yard.
The rivers rushed through the stables, flushing them out, and all the mess
flowed out the hole in the wall on other side of the yard. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">When Augeas learned that Eurystheus
was behind all this, he would not pay Hercules his reward. Not only that, he
denied that he had even promised to pay a reward. Augeas said that if Hercules
didn't like it, he could take the matter to a judge to decide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The judge took his seat. Hercules
called the son of Augeas to testify. The boy swore that his father had agreed
to give Hercules a reward. The judge ruled that Hercules would have to be paid.
In a rage, Augeas ordered both his own son and Hercules to leave his kingdom at
once. So the boy went to the north country to live with his aunts, and Hercules
headed back to Mycenae. But Eurystheus said that this labour didn't count,
because Hercules was paid for having done the work. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">The Apples of the Hesperides</span></b><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Poor Hercules! After eight years and
one month, after performing ten superhuman labors, he was still not off the
hook. Eurystheus demanded two more labors from the hero, since he did not count
the </span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Herakles/hydra.html"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">hydra</span></a> or the <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Herakles/stables.html"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Augean stables</span></a> as properly done.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Eurystheus commanded Hercules to bring
him golden apples which belonged to Zeus, king of the gods. Hera had given
these apples to Zeus as a wedding gift, so surely this task was impossible.
Hera, who didn't want to see Hercules succeed, would never permit him to steal
one of her prize possessions, would she? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">These apples were kept in a garden at
the northern edge of the world, and they were guarded not only by a
hundred-headed dragon, named Ladon, but also by the Hesperides, nymphs who were
daughters of Atlas, the titan who held the sky and the earth upon his
shoulders. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hercules' first problem was that he didn't know where the garden was. He
journeyed through Libya, Egypt, Arabia, and Asia, having adventures along the
way. He was stopped by Kyknos, the son of the war god, Ares, who demanded that
Hercules fight him. After the fight was broken up by a thunderbolt, Hercules
continued on to Illyria, where he seized the sea-god Nereus, who knew the
garden's secret location. Nereus transformed himself into all kinds of
shapes,trying to escape, but Hercules held tight and didn't release Nereus
until he got the information he needed. Continuing on his quest, Hercules was
stopped by Antaeus, the son of the sea god, Poseidon, who also challenged
Hercules to fight. Hercules defeated him in a wrestling match, lifting him off
the ground and crushing him, because when Antaeus touched the earth he became
stronger. After that, Hercules met up with Busiris, another of Poseidon's sons,
was captured, and was led to an altar to be a human sacrifice. But Hercules
escaped, killing Busiris, and journeyed on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hercules came to the rock on Mount Caucasus where Prometheus was
chained. Prometheus, a trickster who made fun of the gods and stole the secret
of fire from them, was sentenced by Zeus to a horrible fate. He was bound to
the mountain, and every day a monstrous eagle came and ate his liver, pecking
away at Prometheus' tortured body. After the eagle flew off, Prometheus' liver
grew back, and the next day he had to endure the eagle's painful visit all over
again. This went on for 30 years, until Hercules showed up and killed the
eagle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="204" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="283" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In gratitude, Prometheus told Hercules the
secret to getting the apples. He would have to send Atlas after them, instead
of going himself. Atlas hated holding up the sky and the earth so much that he
would agree to the task of fetching the apples, in order to pass his burden
over to Hercules. Everything happened as Prometheus had predicted, and Atlas
went to get the apples while Hercules was stuck in Atlas's place, with the
weight of the world literally on his shoulders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">When Atlas returned with the golden
apples, he told Hercules he would take them to Eurystheus himself, and asked
Hercules to stay there and hold the heavy load for the rest of time. Hercules
slyly agreed, but asked Atlas whether he could take it back again, just for a
moment, while the hero put some soft padding on his shoulders to help him bear
the weight of the sky and the earth. Atlas put the apples on the ground, and
lifted the burden onto his own shoulders. And so Hercules picked up the apples
and quickly ran off, carrying them back, uneventfully, to Eurystheus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">There was one final problem: because
they belonged to the gods, the apples could not remain with Eurystheus. After
all the trouble Hercules went through to get them, he had to return them to
Athena, who took them back to the garden at the northern edge of the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Odysseus ( also known as Ulysses) <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ulysses
and Cyclops <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The legendary story of Odysseus</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The word Odyssey has come to mean a journey of epic
proportions. The word comes from Homer's epic poem The Odyssey, written in the
8th century BC and it is a sequel to Homer's other epic poem, The Iliad, which
describes the last days of the great Trojan War. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Odysseus</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, a legendary man According to Homer, Laertes and
Anticleia were the parents of Odysseus. He was married to Penelope and they
gave birth to a son, Telemachus. The Romans transformed the name Odysseus to
Ulysses and that is how he is mostly known today all over the world. Odysseus
had a proud and arrogant character. He was the master of disguise in both
appearance and voice. He also excelled as a military commander and ruler, as is
evident from the role he played in ensuring to the Greeks the victory over
Troy, giving thus an end to the long Trojan War. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The fall of
Troy</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All began the
day Paris of Troy abducted Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Enraged,
Menelaus called upon all kings of Greece, including Odysseus, as all had once
vowed to defend the honour of Helen, if someone ever tried to insult her.
Odysseus had built a hollow into the wooden horse to hide there a few Greek
warriors. This plan was the only way to gain entry to the city that had held
its defenses for so many years. Now that they were inside Odysseus and his men
went out the dummy horse and slaughtered the unsuspecting guards. Then they
opened the city gates and allowed the entire Greek army, who were hiding some
miles away, to enter the city. Thus, thanks to the plan of Odysseus, the Greeks
won the Trojan War. With the war over, Odysseus and his men set sail for their
homeland, Ithaca, but in the end only one of them would come back. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The long
journey home </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The journey
home for Odysseus and his fellows would be long and full of adventures. Their
eyes would see all the strange of the world and Odysseus would come home with
more memories and experiences than any other person in the world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Polyphemus the Cyclops</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="172" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="293" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">After sailing for many weeks without further adventure,
the warriors chanced upon a strange land. Odysseus and a handful of his men
went ashore to search the land. A few minutes walk from the ships brought them
to the mouth of a gigantic cave. Curious, the warriors entered the cave and
found it to be the habitation of some gigantic being. Further on, they found
flocks of sheep inside the cave and being hungry, they slaughtered a few of
them and feasted on their flesh. Unknown to them, this was the lair of
Polyphemus the Cyclops and this land was the home of the gigantic Cyclopes.
Returning to his cave, Polyphemus blocked the entrance with a huge rock, as he
usually did. Odysseus and his men ran towards the entrance but they were
dismayed at the sight that greeted them. Here was a huge rock preventing their
escape from a being that was even bigger than the rock. Laying his only eye on
the warriors, Polyphemus asked who they were. Without revealing their identity
or mission, Odysseus told Polyphemus they were sea-farers who had lost their
way and had come ashore looking for food. Unhappy that his sheep had been
killed and eaten by these men, Polyphemus refused them to exit his cave.
Everyday he made a meal of two brave warriors, dashing their brains out on the
walls of the cave and chewing them raw. Unable to bear this act of cruelty,
Odysseus devised a plan to get them out. He had with him a gourd of strong wine
and one day he offered it to Polyphemus, who grabbed it and poured it down his
throat greedily. The wine made the Cyclops drowsy and within minutes he fell
asleep. Odysseus and his remaining men took a red-hot poker from the fire-place
and thrust it into the Cyclop's only eye, blinding him. The sleeping giant
awoke in shock, howling in pain and bellowing in rage, demanding to know who
had done this. Yet again Odysseus presence of mind proved of the very essence
and he shouted out that his name was "Nobody". Polyphemus, now on his
feet and stumbling around created such a commotion that his fellow Cyclops came
running to his lair to see what had happened. When they stood outside the cave
and asked Polyphemus what had happened, the Cyclops said that Nobody had
blinded him. The other Cyclopes laughed out loud, called him an idiot and told
him there was nothing they could do for "Nobody" had hurt him. The
following morning, Odysseus and his men strapped themselves to the belly of the
sheep and in this manner they escaped when Polyphemus let his flocks out of his
lair to graze. Once outside, the warriors ran to the safety of their ships.
Odysseus, however, priding his brilliance, could not resist taunting
Polyphemus. The moment they set sail, he shouted out to the Cyclops that it was
he, Odysseus, who had blinded him. Enraged and unable to see, Polyphemus threw
a massive rock in the direction of the voice. Luckily for Odysseus, it fell
short of its target for else his ship would have been smashed. Polyphemus cried
out to his father, the sea-god Poseidon, to avenge this ignominy and hereafter
Odysseus became a sworn enemy of Poseidon. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ulysses and Circe<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Circe the Enchantress <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Having barely saved their lives, Odysseus and the men
aboard the one surviving ship landed on the island, Aeaea, home to the powerful
Circe, enchantress and powerful sorceress. With the help of strong magic and
unknown to the warriors, Circe had already envisioned their arrival on her
island. Some fellows of Odysseus who had been sent to explore the island,
walked into the palace of Circe and saw her sitting on her magnificent throne,
surrounded by wild animals who were once men. The beautiful enchantress, with
one touch of her stick, turned the mighty warriors into pigs. With the help of god
Hermes, Odysseus drank a certain herb that protected him from Circe's magic.
When she saw him, the sorceress found her spells to be ineffective and on his
demand that his men be turned back into human form, the sorceress agreed but
only if Odysseus shared her bed-chamber. Odysseus consented and moreover, he
and his men spent a whole year on this island. At the end of that year,
Odysseus decided to depart from Aeaea and continue his way home. Circe, having
the ability to predict future, gave him instructions on what to do afterwards.
She advised him to go to the Underworld and meet the blind prophet Tiresius to
ask him for instructions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Journey to the Underworld</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No alive man had ever entered the Underworld. But brave
Odysseus decided to do so, in order to continue his journey and reach Ithaca at
last! Odysseus and his men made sacrifices to god Hades by the shores of the
River Acheron and Odysseus alone took the path to the dark Underworld. Tiresius
appeared to Odysseus and the blind prophet told him that in order to get home
he had to pass between Scylla and Charybdis, two great monsters. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Sirens<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Leaving Hades,
Odysseus and his men sailed for many days without sight of land. Not before
long, though, strange disquieting sounds reached the ears of the men aboard the
ship. The sounds tugged at their hearts and made them want to weep with joy.
Odysseus at once realized that they were approaching the Sirens that Circe had
warned him about. The sorceress had told him to block every man's ears with wax
for if any were to hear the song of the Sirens, he would surely jump off the
ship, go close to the Sirens and the winged monsters would kill them. Odysseus
did exactly that with his men, but he himself wanted to hear their strange
song. He thus ordered his sailors to tie him up to the mast so he could not
jump into the sea in an attempt to meet the Sirens. With their ears blocked
with wax, the men heard nothing and the ship passed near the Sirens. Suddenly,
Odysseus wanted to get free of his bonds and swim towards the Sirens for their
song had just become clear and it was very beautiful and captivating. But the
ropes were very tight and fortunately he could not untie himself. His fellows
could hear neither the Sirens neither the screams of their leader, who was
praying them to untie him. As the ship was sailing away from the shore, the
song of the Sirens was fading out. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Scylla and Charybdis</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Following the advice of Tiresius, Odysseus chose the
route that would take him on one side close to Scylla, a six-headed monster who
had once been a woman and on the other side Charybdis, a violent whirlpool.
Tiresius had advised Odysseus to sacrifice six men to Scylla so they might pass
through without losing any more men. Approaching the mouth of the strait between
Scylla and Charybdis the warriors shrank back in fear for on either side were
violent deaths. Only Odysseus was quiet, sad that he would have to lose six
brave warriors but he was ready to do so, in order to save the others. As they
passed by Scylla, she picked up six men and allowed the rest to pass through
safely. Odysseus never forgot the screams of the men he had to sacrifice and to
the very end of his days he lamented his betrayal. He had not informed a single
warrior of his motive. Then his ship passed from Charibdys but managed to
survive. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Cattle of Helios <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Weary and tired from the ordeal, Odysseus ordered his
ship to weigh anchor at the island of Thrinacia. This island was sacred to the
sun god Helios whose cattle grazed freely here. Even though Odysseus had been
warned by Tiresius and Circe not to harm any of the cattles, his men defied him
and set about slaughtering and feasting on them. Immediately Helios complained
to Zeus, vowing to take vengeance by sending the sun down to Hades, never to
rise again. Zeus in response sank Odysseus ship with a thunderbolt as it was
leaving Thrinacia and destroyed every man aboard with the exception of the
valiant leader. Somehow, a floundering Odysseus was swept past Scylla and
Charybdis and washed up ashore on an unknown island. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ulysses
and Penelope<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The arrival of Odysseus on Ithaca went unnoticed and, in
the guise of a beggar, he approached the palace. He first met his old servants
and his beloved son, Telemachus. From them, he learnt about the suitors that
have been bothering Penelope for so long. Odysseus, still in the form of a
beggar, he met his wife, who didn't recognize him. He told her about her
husband's bravery and how he had helped in winning the Trojan War. These tails
brought tears to her eyes. Calming herself, she approached the suitors who were
always hanging around the palace and set them a simple task. Penelope would
marry anyone of them who could string Odysseus' bow and shoot an arrow through
twelve axe-handles joined together. The suitors pushed and shoved each other to
be the first to succeed but little did they know that the task they faced was
impossible. Stringing the bow that belonged to Odysseus was not an easy task
for it required not brute strength but dexterity. One by one, each suitor tried
his luck but to no avail. Finally, Odysseus picked up the bow, stringing it
with ease and in one fluid motion letting fly an arrow that pierced all the
twelve axe-handles. After that, there was chaos. Revealing his true identity,
Odysseus began massacring the suitors and, aided by Telemachus and the
swineherd Eumaeus, they had soon cleared the court of all 108 of them. The
suitors were killed and the maid-servants, who had made themselves the pleasure
slaves of the suitors, were all hung. When Penelope heard the massacre, she run
to the court. Fazed by the sudden spate of events, she refused to believe that
this strange beggar was indeed her long lost husband Odysseus, so she set up
another test for him. In front of Odysseus, Penelope ordered the palace
servants to remove the bed from her bed-chamber to the hall outside. On hearing
this, Odysseus bristled with anger and opposed the idea, saying that this bed
had been fashioned out of a living oak by his own hand and none, save a god,
none in the whole world could move it. Joyful, Penelope rushed to Odysseus and
hugged him, with big tears in her eyes, for she was reassured that this man was
her beloved husband returned to her. Only Odysseus knew the secret about their
bed and his words were the proof she needed to believe him. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The real end</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This,
however, was not the end of Odysseus' journey. Prophet Tiresius had forewarned
him that once he had re-asserted himself as King of Ithaca, he should travel
inland holding the oar of a ship. Indeed, after a few years, Odysseus crowned
Telemachus King of Ithaca and left him and his wife Penelope to travel on the
opposite inland. Many days did he wander with the oar in hand seeking for
people who would not know what it was but wherever he went, people recognized
it as an oar. One day, far inland, opposite the shores of Ithaca, Odysseus came
across those people who had never seen the sea and hence did not know what an
oar was. There it was that Odysseus finished his life travel and took a local
princess for his bride. For many years, he lived amongst these people and it
was here that he breathed his last, far from the sea, his family and his
beloved Ithaca.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Romulus and Remus<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Romulus and Remus are the mythological twin brothers who
founded the city of Rome. Here is their story. Twins are Born Romulus and Remus
were twin boys born to a princess named Rhea Silvia. Their father was the
fierce Roman god of war, Mars. The king where the boys lived was scared that
someday Romulus and Remus would overthrow him and take his throne. So he had
the boys left in a basket on the Tiber River. He figured they would soon die.
Raised by a Wolf The boys were found by a she-wolf. The wolf cared for them and
protected them from other wild animals. A friendly woodpecker helped to find
them food. Eventually some shepherds happened across the twins. One shepherd
took the boys home and raised them as his own children. <br />
<br />
Growing Up As the boys grew older they became natural leaders. One day Remus </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="219" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="300" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">was captured and taken to the king. He discovered his
true identity. Romulus gathered some shepherds to rescue his brother. They
ended up killing the king. When the city learned who the boys were, they
offered to crown them as joint kings. They could be rulers of their homeland.
However, they turned down the crowns because they wanted to found their own
city. The twins left and set out to find the perfect spot for their city.
Founding a New City The twins eventually came to the place where Rome is
located today. They both liked the general area, but each wanted to place the
city on a different hill. Romulus wanted the city to be on top of Palatine Hill
while Remus preferred Aventine Hill. They agreed to wait for a sign from the
gods, called an augury, to determine which hill to use. Remus saw the sign of
six vultures first, but Romulus saw twelve. Each claimed to have won. Remus is
Killed Romulus went ahead and started building a wall around Palantine Hill.
However, Remus was jealous and began to make fun of Romulus' wall. At one point
Remus jumped over the wall to show how easy it was to cross. Romulus became
angry and killed Remus. Rome is Founded With Remus dead, Romulus continued to
work on his city. He officially founded the city on April 21, 753 BC, making
himself king, and naming it Rome after himself. From there he began to organize
the city. He divided his army into legions of 3,300 men. He called his 100 most
noble men the Patricians and the elders of Rome the Senate. The city grew and
prospered. For over 1,000 years Rome would be one of the most powerful cities
in the world. Interesting Facts about Romulus and Remus The boys were
descendents of the Trojan prince and great warrior Aeneas made famous from
Virgil's epic poem the Aeneid. In another version of the story the father of
the boys is the hero Hercules. Over time, the city of Rome expanded to cover
the seven surrounding hills of Aventine Hill, Caelian Hill, Capitoline Hill,
Esquiline Hill, Palatine Hill, Quirinal Hill, and Viminal Hill. Romulus died
when he mysteriously disappeared in a whirlwind. The poet Ovid once wrote that
Romulus was turned into a god named Quirinus and went to live on Mount Olympus with
his father Mars.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Story of Dido, Queen of Carthage<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" height="193" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="261" /><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">In Greek mythology, Dido was the
founder and queen of </span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Carthage.html" title="View 'carthage' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Carthage</span></a>, a city on the northern coast of Africa. She was the daughter of Belus
(or Mutto), a king of <a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Tyre.html" title="View 'tyre' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Tyre</span></a> in Phoenicia *, and the sister of Pygmalion. Dido is best known for her
love affair with the <a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Trojan.html" title="View 'trojan' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Trojan</span></a> hero <a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Aeneas.html" title="View 'aeneas' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Aeneas</span></a> *. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">King Belus had wanted his son and daughter to share royal power equally
after his death, but Pygmalion seized the throne and murdered Dido's husband.
Dido and her followers fled from Tyre, landing on the shores of North Africa.
There a local </span><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Ruler.html" title="View 'ruler' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">ruler</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> named
Iarbas agreed to sell Dido as much land as the hide of a bull could cover. Dido
cut a bull's hide into thin strips and used it to outline a large area of land.
On that site, Dido built Carthage and became its queen. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
Carthage became a prosperous city. Iarbas pursued Dido, hoping to marry her,
but Dido refused. After her husband's death, she had sworn never to marry
again. Iarbas would not take no for an answer and even threatened Carthage with
war unless Dido agreed to be his wife. Seeing no other alternative, Dido killed
herself by throwing herself into the flames of a funeral <b>pyre. </b>In
another version of the story, she mounted the </span><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Pyre.html" title="View 'pyre' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">pyre</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> and
stabbed herself, surrounded by her people. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Roman poet </span><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Virgil.html" title="View 'virgil' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Virgil</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> used
part of the story of Dido in his <b>epic </b>the <i>Aeneid </i>. In Virgil's
account, the Trojan leader Aeneas was shipwrecked on the shore near Carthage at
the time when Dido was building the new city. After welcoming Aeneas and his
men, the queen fell deeply in love with him. In time, the two lived together as
wife and husband, and Aeneas began to act as though he were king of Carthage.
Then Jupiter * sent a messenger to tell Aeneas that he could not remain in
Carthage. Rather, his <b>destiny </b>was to found a new city for the Trojans in
Italy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dido was devastated when she heard that Aeneas planned to leave. She had
believed that the two of them would eventually marry. Aeneas insisted that he
had no choice but to obey the gods, and shortly afterward, he and his men set </span><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Sail.html" title="View 'sail' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">sail</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> for
Italy. When Dido saw the ships sail out to sea, she ordered a funeral pyre to
be built. She climbed onto to it, cursed Aeneas, and using a </span><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Sword.html" title="View 'sword' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">sword</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> he had
given her, stabbed herself to death. In 1689, the English composer </span><a href="http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/knowledge/Henry_Purcell.html" title="View 'henry purcell' definition from Wikipedia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Henry Purcell</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> wrote an opera, <i>Dido and Aeneas, </i>that was based on the story and
characters from Greek mythology. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
STORY OF CUPID AND PSYCHE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Cupid and Psyche</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">is a story originally from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Metamorphoses</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(also called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass"><i><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Golden Ass</span></i></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">),
written in the 2nd Century AD by Lucius<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Apuleius</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Madaurensis.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>It concerns the overcoming of
obstacles to the love between Psyche, "Soul" or "Breath of
Life") and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupid" title="Cupid"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cupid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">("Desire") or Amor ("Love”), and their
ultimate union in a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieros_gamos" title="Hieros gamos"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">sacred marriage</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="cupid_psyche.jpg" height="222" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1035" width="162" /><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #211b14; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cupid and Psyche's
narrative begins as most modern fairy tales do: with a kingdom, a daughter with
an insurmountable burden over her head, a trial, and a subsequent moral.
It is as follows: a king and queen give birth to three daughters, but
only the third possesses unearthly beauty. Apuleius' text claimed that
her beauty was so astounding the "poverty of language is unable to express
its due praise." Rumors spread of this girl, Psyche's, astounding
loveliness, eventually reaching the ears of the Roman goddess Venus.
Angry that so many mortals were comparing Psyche's beauty to her own and in
many ways claiming that the mortal surpassed her Venus calls upon her son Cupid
to demand that he use one of his arrows of desire to ensure Psyche fall in love
with a human monster.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #211b14; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Obedient as always to his mother, Cupid then
descends to the earthly plane to do as she wishes. Yet he was so
astonished himself by the mortal princess' beauty that he mistakenly shot
himself. From that moment, Cupid was irrevocably in love with the
princess. Around this time, it became evident to her parents that
Psyche's attractiveness had angered the gods, as no mortal man would take her
hand in marriage. Imploring the temple of Apollo, they learn that Psyche
is destined for a much worse fate than celibacy: "The virgin is destined
for the bride of no mortal lover. Her future husband awaits her on the
top of the mountain. He is a monster whom neither gods nor men can
resist." Psyche, conscious of the mistakes of her mortal kingdom for
praising her so highly, is content to follow the oracle's advice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="color: #211b14;">From
the top of the highest cliff, dressed in funerary garbs, Psyche is swept away
by the west wind, Zephyr. She is brought to a striking valley, in the
center of which stands a palace so magnificent it could not have been built by
any hands other than the gods'. Surrounded by luscious trees with a
crystalline fountain at its heart, Psyche soon comes to the conclusion that
this golden hall is her new home, further reiterated by the voice of her new
husband echoing through the halls. This faceless stranger begins to visit
her in the night, every night, to make love to her in the darkness. But
despite his nighttime tenderness, Psyche is haunted by the oracle's claim that
he was a monster.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="color: #211b14; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="color: #211b14; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Psyche's
Betrayal<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="color: #211b14;">When
allowing her two sisters to visit, they are jealous of her beautiful home and
insist that Psyche's husband really is a monster and she owes it to herself to
find out. So Psyche is convinced to break her husband's only request of
allowing his face to remain a secret and look upon him in the night. In
doing so, she damns their relationship.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #211b14; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A single drop of oil falls from the candle
Psyche lights to gaze at his face, waking him, and Cupid, in all his majestic
beauty, flees their home, distressed by her betrayal. Distraught,
Psyche goes in search of her husband, traveling for many days, until she comes
to the temple of Ceres, the motherly goddess of grain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #211b14; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Trials<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #211b14; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ceres instructs Psyche to surrender herself to
Venus and take whatever ill will the goddess throws at her. Obeying
Ceres' advice, Psyche is thus given three seemingly impossible tasks to
complete. First, the princess has to separate the grains of Venus' temple's
storehouse into piles of barley, millet, beans, etc. Second, Psyche has to
steal golden wool from a herd of sheep; third and finally, Psyche is ordered to
travel into the underworld and request from Queen Proserpina a little of her
beauty to pass along to the goddess of love. This task, however, demands a
further challenge: that Psyche keeps the box in which the beauty is placed
tightly closed, for fear of terrible repercussions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="color: #211b14;">Unknown
to Psyche, throughout these trails, Cupid is constantly at her aid. He
instructs ants to help her sort the grains; and then the river god offers her
instructions of how to steal the prize fleece from the shepherd. Finally,
Psyche is given divine advice on how to surpass the dangers of Hades.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN" style="color: #211b14;">Her
failure foretold by Venus herself comes when Psyche, greatly upset by the
trials she had to overcome, opens the box and is overcome by the Stygian sleep,
a sleep so strong she is considered the living dead. By that point, Cupid
has had enough of his separation from his wife, and he flies to her rescue,
lifting her sleeping form to the heavens, and pleading with the great god
Jupiter to talk sense into his mother. Venus lifts her terrible curse
from the girl, and once Psyche is awake, she is transformed into an immortal,
and is properly wed to the young god of desire. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">STORY OF
EURYDICE AND ORPHEUS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="7004253439_6f61fb4064_o.jpg" height="159" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1034" width="190" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Orpheus
was the son of Apollo and he was a very gifted musician whos music could charm
mortals, animals and the trees. Eurydice was the wife of Orpheus and one day
Eurydice was wandering with the nymphs and a shepherd named Aristaeus attempted
to make advance toward Eurydice and she ran off. While running she was bitten
by a snake and died. Being so grief strucken Orpheus played his sorrows in his
music which was heard by gods and men. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">In such need for his love he
went in search Eurydice in the underworld. In the underworld he sang his sorrow
with such perfection that Pluto, Proserpine and all of the ghosts of the
underworld stopped. Orpheus’s song made Proserpine and Pluto grant him his
desire. They let Eurydice leave with him under one condition; he could not look
at her until they left the underworld. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">When they nearly left the
underworld Orpheus had forgotten his promise and wanted to assure that Eurydice
was following him he looked at her and she was instantly gone. Orpheus didn’t
even have a chance to hug his love. In such love for his wife Orpheus wanted to
follow her in death. He wandered back into the underworld and kept playing his
heartbreaking song. Orpheus’s singing had caused the Thracian maidens to get
angry and screamed to drown out his overpowering music. The maidens ripped him
apart and placed his remains at Libethra. Now in death Orpheus and Eurydice
walk the fields together in true happiness.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">STORY OF ECHO AND
NARCISSUS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="ech06L.jpg" height="162" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="290" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Echo was a beautiful
nymph, fond of the woods and hills, where she devoted herself to woodland
sports. She was a favorite of Diana, and attended her in the chase. But Echo
had one failing; she was fond of talking, and whether in chat or argument,
would have the last word.<br />
One day Juno was seeking her husband, who, she had reason to fear, was
amusing himself among the nymphs. Echo by her talk contrived to detain the
goddess till the nymphs made their escape. When Juno discovered it, she
passed sentence upon Echo in these words: “You shall forfeit the use of that
tongue with which you have cheated me; except for that one purpose you are so
fond of reply. You shall still have the last word, but no power to speak
first.”<br />
<br />
This nymph saw Narcissus, a beautiful youth, as he pursued the chase upon the
mountains. She loved him and followed his footsteps. O how she longed to
address him in the softest accents, and wins him to converse! But it was not
in her power. She waited with impatience for him to speak first, and
had her answer ready. One day the youth, being separated from his companions,
shouted aloud, “Who’s here?” Echo replied, “Here” Narcissus looked around,
but seeing no one, called out, “Come.” Echo answered, “Come.” As no one came,
Narcissus called again, “Why do you shun me?” Echo asked the same question.
“Let us join one another,” said the youth.<br />
<br />
The maid answered with all her heart in the same words, and hastened to the
spot, ready to throw her arms about his neck. He started back, exclaiming,
“Hands off! I would rather die than you should have me!” “Have me,” said she;
but it was all in vain. He left her, and she went to hide her blushes in the
recesses of the woods. From that time forth she lived in caves and
among mountain cliffs. Her form faded with grief, till at last all her flesh
shrank away. Her bones were changed into rocks and there was nothing left of
her but her voice. With that she is still ready to reply to anyone who calls
her, and keeps up her old habit of having the last word.<br />
Narcissus’s cruelty in this case was not the only instance. He shunned all
the rest of the nymphs, as he had done poor Echo. One day a maiden who had in
vain endeavored to attract him uttered a prayer that he might some time or
other feel what it was to love and meet no return of affection. The avenging
goddess heard and granted the prayer. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There was a clear fountain, with water like silver, to which the
shepherds never drove their flocks, nor the mountain goats resorted, nor any
of the beasts of the forests; neither was it defaced with fallen leaves or
branches, but the grass grew fresh around it, and the rocks sheltered it from
the sun. Hither came one day the youth, fatigued with hunting, heated and
thirsty.<br />
<br />
He stooped down to drink, and saw his own image in the water; he thought it
was some beautiful water-spirit living in the fountain. He stood gazing with
admiration at those bright eyes, those locks curled like the locks of Bacchus
or Apollo, the rounded cheeks, the ivory neck, the parted lips, and the glow
of health and exercise over all. He fell in love with himself. He brought his
lips near to take a kiss; he plunged his arms in to embrace the beloved
object. It fled at the touch, but returned again after a moment and renewed
the fascination. He could not tear himself away; he lost all thought of
food or rest, while he hovered over the brink of the fountain gazing upon his
own image. He talked with the supposed spirit: “Why, beautiful being, do you
shun me? Surely my face is not one to repel you. The nymphs love me, and you
yourself look not indifferent upon me. When I stretch forth my arms you do
the same; and you smile upon me and answer my beckoning with the
like.” His tears fell into the water and disturbed the image. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As he saw it depart, he exclaimed, “Stay, I entreat you! Let me
at least gaze upon you, if I may not touch you.” With this, and much more of
the same kind, he cherished the flame that consumed him, so that by degrees
he lost his color, his vigor, and the beauty which formerly had so charmed
the nymph Echo. She kept near him, however, and when he exclaimed,
“Alas! alas!” she answered him with the same words. He pinned away and died;
and when his shade passed the Stygian river, it leaned over the boat to catch
a look of itself in the waters. The nymphs mourned for him, especially the
water-nymphs; and when they smote their breasts Echo smote hers also. They
prepared a funeral pile and would have burned the body, but it was nowhere to
be found; but in its place a flower, purple within, and surrounded with white
leaves, which bears the name and preserves the memory of Narcissus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
– 3: Celtic Mythology<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">OISIN IN THE LAND OF YOUTH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It happened that on a
misty summer morning as Finn and Oisín with many companions were hunting on the
shores of Loch Lena they saw coming towards them a maiden, beautiful
exceedingly, riding on a snow-white steed. She wore the garb of a queen; a
crown of gold was on her head, and a dark brown mantle of silk, set with stars
of red gold, fell around her and trailed on the ground. Silver shoes were on
her horse's hoofs, and a crest of gold nodded on his head. When she came near
she said to Finn, "From very far away I have come, and now at last I have
found thee, Finn, son of Cumhal."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then Finn said,
"What is thy land and race, maiden, and what dost thou seek from me?"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"My name," she
said, "is Niam of the Golden Hair. I am the daughter of the King of the
Land of Youth, and that which has brought me here is the love of thy son
Oisín." Then she turned to Oisín and she spoke to him in the voice of one
who has never asked anything but it was granted to her, "Wilt thou go with
me, Oisín, to my father's land?"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And Oisín said,
"That will I, and to the world's end"; for the fairy spell had so
wrought upon his heart that he cared no more for any earthly thing but to have
the love of Niam of the Head of Gold.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then the maiden spoke of
the Land Oversea to which she had summoned her lover, and as she spoke a dreamy
stillness fell on all things, nor did a horse shake his bit nor a hound bay,
nor the least breath of wind stir in the forest trees till she had made an end.
And what she said seemed sweeter and more wonderful as she spoke it than
anything they could afterwards remember to have heard, but so far as they could
remember it, it was this:—<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"Delightful is the land
beyond all dreams,<br />
Fairer than aught thine eyes have ever seen.<br />
There all the year the fruit is on the tree,<br />
And all the year the bloom is on the flower.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"There with wild honey
drip the forest trees;<br />
The stores of wine and mead shall never fail.<br />
Nor pain nor sickness knows the dweller there,<br />
Death and decay come near him never more.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"The feast shall cloy not,
nor the chase shall tire,<br />
Nor music cease for ever through the hall;<br />
The gold and jewels of the Land of Youth<br />
Outshine all splendours ever dreamed by man.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"Thou shalt have horses of
the fairy breed,<br />
Thou shalt have hounds that can outrun the wind;<br />
A hundred chiefs shall follow thee in war,<br />
A hundred maidens sing thee to thy sleep.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"A crown of sovranty thy
brow shall wear,<br />
And by thy side a magic blade shall hang.<br />
Thou shalt be lord of all the Land of Youth,<br />
And lord of Niam of the Head of Gold."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As the magic song ended,
the Fians beheld Oisín mount the fairy steed and hold the maiden in his arms,
and ere they could stir or speak she turned her horse's head and shook the
ringing bridle and down the forest glade they fled, as a beam of light flies
over the land when clouds drive across the sun; and never did the Fianna behold
Oisín, son of Finn, on earth again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet what befell him
afterwards is known. As his birth was strange so was his end, for he saw the wonders
of the Land of Youth with mortal eyes and lived to tell them with mortal lips.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><a href="http://affiliates.allposters.com/link/redirect.asp?item=1868994&AID=649295561&PSTID=1&LTID=1&lang=1" target=""_top""><img align="left" alt="Niam of the Golden Hair Takes Oisin to Her Father's Land, The Land Oversea" border="0" height="199" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" title=""Niam of the Golden Hair Takes Oisin to Her Father's Land, The Land Oversea; by Stephen Reid"" v:shapes="_x0000_s1032" width="226" /></a><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When the white horse
with its riders reached the sea it ran lightly over the waves and soon the
green woods and headlands of Erinn faded out of sight. And now the sun shone
fiercely down, and the riders passed into a golden haze in which Oisín lost all
knowledge of where he was or if sea or dry land were beneath his horse's hoofs.
But strange sights sometimes appeared to them in the mist, for towers and
palace gateways loomed up and disappeared, and once a hornless doe bounded by
them chased by a white hound with one red ear, and again they saw a young maid
ride by on a brown steed, bearing a golden apple in her hand, and close behind
her followed a young horseman on a white steed, a purple cloak floating at his
back and a gold-hilted sword in his hand. And Oisín would have asked the
princess who and what these apparitions were, but Niam bade him ask nothing nor
seem to notice any phantom they might see until they were come to the Land of
Youth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
"They rode up to a stately palace"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At last the sky gloomed
above them, and Niam urged their steed faster. The wind lashed them with
pelting rain, thunder roared across the sea and lightning blazed, but they held
on their way till at length they came once more into a region of calm and
sunshine. And now Oisín saw before him a shore of yellow sand, lapped by the
ripples of a summer sea. Inland, there rose before his eye wooded hills amid
which he could discern the roofs and towers of a noble city. The white horse
bore them swiftly to the shore and Oisín and the maiden lighted down. And Oisín
marvelled at everything around him, for never was water so blue or trees so
stately as those he saw, and the forest was alive with the hum of bees and the
song of birds, and the creatures that are wild in other lands, the deer and the
red squirrel and the wood-dove, came, without fear, to be caressed. Soon, as
they went forward, the walls of a city came in sight, and folk began to meet
them on the road, some riding, some afoot, all of whom were either youths or
maidens, all looking as joyous as if the morning of happy life had just begun
for them, and no old or feeble person was to be seen. Niam led her companion
through a towered gateway built of white and red marble, and there they were
met by a glittering company of a hundred riders on black steeds and a hundred
on white, and Oisín mounted a black horse and Niam her white, and they rode up
to a stately palace where the King of the Land of Youth had his dwelling. And
there he received them, saying in a loud voice that all the folk could hear,
"Welcome, Oisín, son of Finn. Thou art come to the Land of Youth, where
sorrow and weariness and death shall never touch thee. This thou hast won by
thy faithfulness and valour and by the songs that thou hast made for the men of
Erinn, whereof the fame is come to us, for we have here indeed all things that
are delightful and joyous, but poesy alone we had not. But now we have the
chief poet of the race of men to live with us, immortal among immortals, and
the fair and cloudless life that we lead here shall be praised in verses as
fair; even as thou, Oisín, did'st praise and adorn the short and toilsome and
chequered life that men live in the world thou hast left forever. And Niam my
daughter shall be thy bride, and thou shalt be in all things even as myself in
the Land of Youth."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then the heart of Oisín
was filled with glory and joy, and he turned to Niam and saw her eyes burn with
love as she gazed upon him. And they were wedded the same day, and the joy they
had in each other grew sweeter and deeper with every day that passed. All that
Niam had promised in her magic song in the wild wood when first they met,
seemed faint beside the splendour and beauty of the life in the Land of Youth.
In the great palace they trod on silken carpets and ate off plates of gold; the
marble walls and doorways were wrought with carved work, or hung with
tapestries, where forest glades, and still lakes, and flying deer were done in
colours of unfading glow. Sunshine bathed that palace always, and cool winds
wandered through its dim corridors, and in its courts there played fountains of
bright water set about with flowers. When Oisín wished to ride, a steed of
fiery but gentle temper bore him wherever he would through the pleasant land;
when he longed to hear music, there came upon his thought, as though borne on
the wind, crystal notes such as no hand ever struck from the strings of any
harp on earth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But Oisín's hand now
never touched the harp, and the desire of singing and of making poetry never
waked in him, for no one thing seemed so much better than the rest, where all
perfection bloomed and glowed around him, as to make him long to praise it and
to set it apart.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When seven days had passed,
he said to Niam, "I would fain go a-hunting." Niam said, "So be
it, dear love; to-morrow we shall take order for that." Oisín lay long
awake that night, thinking of the sound of Finn's hunting-horn, and of the
smell of green boughs when they kindled them to roast the deer-flesh in Fian
ovens in the wildwood.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">So next day Oisín and
Niam fared forth on horseback, with their company of knights and maidens, and
dogs leaping and barking with eagerness for the chase. Anon they came to the
forest, and the hunters with the hounds made a wide circuit on this side and on
that, till at last the loud clamour of the hounds told that a stag was on foot,
and Oisín saw them streaming down an open glen, the stag with its great antlers
laid back and flying like the wind. So he shouted the Fian hunting-cry and rode
furiously on their track. All day long they chased the stag through the echoing
forest, and the fairy steed bore him unfaltering over rough ground and smooth,
till at last as darkness began to fall the quarry was pulled down, and Oisín
cut its throat with his hunting-knife. Long it seemed to him since he had felt
glad and weary as he felt now, and since the woodland air with its odours of
pine and mint and wild garlic had tasted so sweet in his mouth; and truly it
was longer than he knew. But when he bade make ready the wood-oven for their
meal, and build a bothy of boughs for their repose, Niam led him seven steps
apart and seven to the left hand, and yet seven back to the place where they
had killed the deer, and lo, there rose before him a stately Dún with litten
windows and smoke drifting above its roof. When they entered, there was a table
spread for a great company, and cooks and serving-men busy about a wide hearth
where roast and boiled meats of every sort were being prepared. Casks of Greek
wine stood open around the walls, and cups of gold were on the board. So they
all ate and drank their sufficiency, and all night Oisín and Niam slept on a
bed softer than swans-down in a chamber no less fair than that which they had
in the City of the Land of Youth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Next day, at the first
light of dawn, they were on foot; and soon again the forest rang to the baying
of hounds and the music of the hunting-horn. Oisín's steed bore him all day,
tireless and swift as before, and again the quarry fell at night's approach,
and again a palace rose in the wilderness for their night's entertainment, and
all things in it even more abundant and more sumptuous than before. And so for
seven days they fared in that forest, and seven stags were slain. Then Oisín
grew wearied of hunting, and as he plunged his sharp black hunting-knife into
the throat of the last stag, he thought of the sword of magic temper that hung
idle by his side in the City of Youth, or rested from its golden nail in his
bed-chamber, and he said to Niam, "Has thy father never a foe to tame,
never a wrong to avenge? Surely the peasant is no man whose hand forgets the
plough, nor the warrior whose hand forgets the sword hilt." Niam looked on
him strangely for a while and as if she did not understand his words, or sought
some meaning in them which yet she feared to find. But at last she said,
"If deeds of arms be thy desire, Oisín, thou shalt have thy sufficiency
ere long." And so they rode home, and slept that night in the palace of
the City of Youth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At daybreak on the
following morn Niam roused Oisín, and she buckled on him his golden-hilted
sword and his corselet of blue steel inlaid with gold. Then he put on his head
a steel and gold helmet with dragon crest, and slung on his back a shield of
bronze wrought all over with cunning hammer-work of serpentine lines that
swelled and sank upon the surface, and coiled in mazy knots, or flowed in long
sweeping curves like waves of the sea when they gather might and volume for their
leap upon the sounding shore. In the glimmering dawn, through the empty streets
of the fair city, they rode forth alone and took their way through fields of
corn and by apple orchards where red fruit hung down to their hands. But by
noontide their way began to mount upwards among blue hills that they had marked
from the city walls toward the west, and of man's husbandry they saw no more,
but tall red-stemmed pine trees bordered the way on either side, and silence
and loneliness increased. At length they reached a broad table-land deep in the
heart of the mountains, where nothing grew but long coarse grass, drooping by
pools of black and motionless water, and where great boulders, bleached white
or stained with slimy lichens of livid red, lay scattered far and wide about
the plain. Against the sky the mountain line now showed like a threat of bared
and angry teeth, and as they rode towards it Oisín perceived a huge fortress
lying in the throat of a wide glen or mountain pass. White as death was the
stone of which it was built, save where it was streaked with black or green
from the foulness of wet mosses that clung to its cornices and battlements, and
none seemed stirring about the place nor did any banner blow from its towers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then said Niam,
"This, O Oisín, is the Dún of the giant Fovor of the Mighty Blows. In it
he keeps prisoner a princess of the Fairy Folk whom he would fain make his
bride, but he may not do so, nor may she escape, until Fovor has met in battle
a champion who will undertake her cause. Approach, then, to the gate, if thou
art fain to undertake this adventure, and blow the horn which hangs thereby,
and then look to thy weapons, for soon indeed will the battle be broken upon
thee."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then Oisín rode to the
gate and thrice he blew on the great horn which hung by it, and the clangour of
it groaned drearily back from the cliffs that overhung the glen. Not thus
indeed sounded the <i>Dord</i> of Finn as its call blew lust of
fighting and scorn of death into the hearts of the Fianna amid the stress of
battle. At the third blast the rusty gates opened, grinding on their hinges,
and Oisín rode into a wide courtyard where servitors of evil aspect took his
horse and Niam's, and led them into the hall of Fovor. Dark it was and low,
with mouldering arras on its walls, and foul and withered rushes on the floor,
where dogs gnawed the bones thrown to them at the last meal, and spilt ale and
hacked fragments of flesh littered the bare oaken table. And here rose
languidly to greet them a maiden bound with seven chains, to whom Niam spoke
lovingly, saying that her champion was come and that her long captivity should
end. And the maiden looked upon Oisín, whose proud bearing and jewelled armour
made the mean place seem meaner still, and a light of hope and of joy seemed to
glimmer upon her brow. So she gave them refreshment as she could, and
afterwards they betook them once more to the courtyard, where the place of
battle was set.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Here, at the further
side, stood a huge man clad in rusty armour, who when he saw Oisín rushed upon
him, silent and furious, and swinging a great battleaxe in his hand. But doubt
and langour weighed upon Oisín's heart, and it seemed to him as if he were in
an evil dream, which he knew was but a dream, and would be less than nothing
when the hour of awakening should come. Yet he raised his shield and gripped
the fairy sword, striving to shout the Fian battle-cry as he closed with Fovor.
But soon a heavy blow smote him to the ground, and his armour clanged harshly
on the stones. Then a cloud seemed to pass from his spirit, and he leaped to
his feet quicker than an arrow flies from the string, and thrusting fiercely at
the giant his sword-point gashed the under side of Fovor's arm when it was
raised to strike, and Oisín saw his enemy's blood. Then the fight raged hither
and thither about the wide courtyard, with trampling of feet and clash of steel
and ringing of armour and shouts of onset as the heroes closed; Oisín, agile as
a wild stag, evading the sweep of the mighty axe and rushing in with flickering
blade at every unguarded moment, his whole soul bent on one fierce thought, to
drive his point into some gap at shoulder or neck in Fovor's coat of mail. At
length, when both were weary and wounded men, with hacked and battered armour,
Oisín's blade cut the thong of Fovor's headpiece and it fell clattering to the
ground. Another blow laid the giant prostrate, and Oisín leaned, dizzy and
panting, upon his sword, while Fovor's serving-men took off their master in a
litter, and Niam came to aid her lord. Then Oisín stripped off his armour in
the great hall, and Niam tended to his wounds, healing them with magic herbs
and murmured incantations, and they saw that one of the seven rusty chains that
had bound the princess hung loose from its iron staple in the wall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">All night long Oisín lay
in deep and healing slumber, and next day he arose, whole and strong, and hot
to renew the fray. And the giant was likewise healed and his might and
fierceness returned to him. So they fought till they were breathless and weary,
and then to it again, and again, till in the end Oisín drove his sword to the
hilt in the giant's shoulder where it joins the collar bone, and he fell
aswoon, and was borne away as before. And another chain of the seven fell from
the girdle of the captive maiden.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thus for seven days went
on the combat, and Oisín had seven nights of healing and rest, with the
tenderness and beauty of Niam about his couch; and on the seventh day the
maiden was free, and her folk brought her away, rejoicing, with banners and
with music that made a brightness for a while in that forlorn and evil place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But Oisín's heart was
high with pride and victory, and a longing uprose in his heart with a rush like
a springtide for the days when some great deed had been done among the Fianna,
and the victors were hailed and lauded by the home-folk in the Dún of Allen,
men and women leaving their toil or their pleasure to crowd round the heroes,
and to question again and again, and to learn each thing that had passed; and
the bards noting all to weave it into a glorious tale for after days; and more
than all the smile and the look of Finn as he learned how his children had
borne themselves in the face of death. And so Oisín said to Niam, "Let me,
for a short while, return to the land of Erinn, that I may see there my friends
and kin and tell them of the glory and joy that are mine in the Land of
Youth." But Niam wept and laid her white arms about his neck, entreating
him to think no more of the sad world where all men live and move under a canopy
of death, and where summer is slain by winter, and youth by old age, and where
love itself, if it die not by falsehood and wrong, perishes many a time of too
complete a joy. But Oisín said, "The world of men compared with thy world
is like this dreary waste compared with the city of thy father; yet in that
city, Niam, none is better or worse than another, and I hunger to tell my tale
to ignorant and feeble folk that my words can move, as words of mine have done
of old, to wonder and delight. Then I shall return to thee, Niam, and to thy
fair and blissful land; and having brought over to mortal men a tale that never
man has told before, I shall be happy and at peace for ever in the Land of
Youth."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">So they fared back to
the golden city, and next day Niam brought to Oisín the white steed that had
borne them from Erinn, and bade him farewell. "This our steed," she
said, "will carry thee across the sea to the land where I found thee, and
whithersoever thou wilt, and what folk are there thou shalt see, and what tale
thou hast to tell can be told. But never for even a moment must thou alight
from his back, for if thy foot once touch again the soil of earth, thou shalt
never win to me and to the Land of Youth again. And sorely do I fear some evil
chance. Was not the love of Niam of the Head of Gold enough to fill a mortal's
heart? But if thou must go, then go, and blessing and victory be thine."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then Oisín held her long
in his arms and kissed her, and vowed to make no long stay and never to alight
from the fairy steed. And then he shook the golden reins and the horse threw
its head aloft and snorted and bore him away in a pace like that of flowing
water for speed and smoothness. Anon they came to the margin of the blue sea,
and still the white steed galloped on, brushing the crests of the waves into
glittering spray. The sun glared upon the sea and Oisín's head swam with the
heat and motion, and in mist and dreams he rode where no day was, nor night,
nor any thought of time, till at last his horse's hoofs ploughed through wet,
yellow sands, and he saw black rocks rising up at each side of a little bay,
and inland were fields green or brown, and white cottages thatched with reeds,
and men and women, toil-worn and clad in earth-coloured garments, went to and
fro about their tasks or stopped gazing at the rider in his crimson cloak and
at the golden trappings of his horse. But among the cottages was a small house
of stone such as Oisín had never seen in the land of Erinn; stone was its roof
as well as the walls, very steep and high, and near-by from a rude frame of
timber there hung a bell of bronze. Into this house there passed one whom from
his shaven crown Oisín guessed to be a druid, and behind him two lads in white
apparel. The druid having seen the horseman turned his eyes again to the ground
and passed on, regarding him not, and the lads did likewise. And Oisín rode on,
eager to reach the Dún upon the Hill of Allen and to see the faces of his kin
and his friends.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
"The white steed had vanished from their eyes like a wreath of mist"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
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o:title="The white steed had vanished from their eyes like a wreath of mist"/>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="The white steed had vanished from their eyes like a wreath of mist" height="222" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1031" width="153" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At length, coming from
the forest path into the great clearing where the Hill of Allen was wont to
rise broad and green, with its rampart enclosing many white-walled dwellings,
and the great hall towering high in the midst, he saw but grassy mounds
overgrown with rank weeds and whin bushes, and among them pastured a peasant's
kine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Then a strange horror
fell upon him, and he thought some enchantment from the land of Faery held his
eyes and mocked him with false visions. He threw his arms abroad and shouted
the names of Finn and Oscar, but none replied, and he thought that perchance
the hounds might hear him, and he cried upon Bran and Sceolaun, and strained
his ears if they might catch the faintest rustle or whisper of the world from
the sight of which his eyes were holden, but he heard only the sigh of the wind
in the whins. Then he rode in terror from that place, setting his face towards
the eastern sea, for he meant to traverse Ireland from side to side and end to
end in the search of some escape from his enchantment. But when he came near to
the eastern sea and was now in the place which is called the Valley of the
Thrushes, he saw in a field upon the hillside a crowd of men striving to roll
aside a great boulder from their tilled land, and an overseer directing them.
Towards them he rode, meaning to ask them concerning Finn and the Fianna. As he
came near, they all stopped their work to gaze upon him, for to them he
appeared like a messenger of the Fairy Folk or an angel from heaven. Taller and
mightier he was than the men-folk they knew, with sword-blue eyes and brown
ruddy cheeks; in his mouth, as it were, a shower of pearls, and bright hair
clustered beneath the rim of his helmet. And as Oisín looked upon their puny
forms, marred by toil and care, and at the stone which they feebly strove to
heave from its bed, he was filled with pity, and thought to himself, "not
such were even the churls of Erinn when I left them for the Land of
Youth," and he stooped from his saddle to help them. His hand he set to
the boulder, and with a mighty heave he lifted it from where it lay and set it
rolling down the hill. And the men raised a shout of wonder and applause, but
their shouting changed in a moment into cries of terror and dismay, and they
fled, jostling and overthrowing each other to escape from the place of fear;
for a marvel horrible to see had taken place. For Oisín's saddle-girth had
burst as he heaved the stone, and he fell headlong to the ground. In an instant
the white steed had vanished from their eyes like a wreath of mist, and that
which rose, feeble and staggering, from the ground was no youthful warrior but
a man stricken with extreme old age, white-bearded and withered, who stretched
out groping hands and moaned with feeble and bitter cries. And his crimson
cloak and yellow silken tunic were now but coarse homespun stuff tied with a
hempen girdle, and the gold-hilted sword was a rough oaken staff such as a
beggar carries who wanders the roads from farmer's house to house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When the people saw that
the doom that had been wrought was not for them they returned, and found the
old man prone on the ground with his face hidden in his arms. So they lifted
him up and asked who he was and what had befallen him. Oisín gazed round on
them with dim eyes, and at last he said, "I was Oisín the son of Finn, and
I pray ye tell me where he now dwells, for his Dún on the Hill of Allen is now
a desolation, and I have neither seen him nor heard his hunting horn from the
Western to the Eastern Sea." Then the men gazed strangely on each other
and on Oisín, and the overseer asked, "Of what Finn dost thou speak, for
there be many of that name in Erinn?" Oisín said, "Surely of Finn mac
Cumhal mac Trenmor, captain of the Fianna of Erinn." Then the overseer
said, "Thou art daft, old man, and thou hast made us daft to take thee for
a youth as we did a while agone. But we at least have now our wits again, and
we know that Finn son of Cumhal and all his generation have been dead these
three hundred years. At the battle of Gowra fell Oscar, son of Oisín, and Finn
at the battle of Brea, as the historians tell us; and the lays of Oisín, whose
death no man knows the manner of, are sung by our harpers at great men's
feasts. But now the Talkenn, Patrick, has come into Ireland and has preached to
us the One God and Christ His Son, by whose might these old days and ways are
done away with, and Finn and his Fianna, with their feasting and hunting and
songs of war and of love, have no such reverence among us as the monks and
virgins of holy Patrick, and the psalms and prayers that go up daily to cleanse
us from sin and to save us from the fire of judgment." But Oisín replied,
half hearing and still less comprehending what was said to him, "If thy
God have slain Finn and Oscar, I would say that God is a strong man." Then
they all cried out upon him, and some picked up stones, but the overseer bade
them let him be until the Talkenn had spoken with him, and till he should order
what was to be done.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">So they brought him to
Patrick, who entreated him gently and hospitably, and to Patrick he told the
story of all that had befallen him. But Patrick bade his scribes write all
carefully down, that the memory of the heroes whom Oisín had known, and of the
joyous and free life they had led in the woods and glens and wild places of
Erinn, should never be forgotten among men. And Oisín, during the short span of
life that yet remained to him, told to Patrick many tales of the Fianna and
their deeds, but of the three hundred years that he had spent with Niam in the
Land of Youth he rarely spoke, for they seemed to him but as a vision or a
dream of the night, set between a sunny and a rainy day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
– 4: Legends<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Arthur, King of the Britons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A biography by David Nash Ford<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Arthur,
it seems, is claimed as the King of nearly every Celtic Kingdom known. The 6th
century certainly saw many men named Arthur born into the Celtic Royal families
of Britain but, despite attempts to identify the great man himself amongst
them, there can be little doubt that most of these people were only named in
his honour. Princes with other names are also sometimes identified with
"Arthwyr" which is thought by some to be a title similar to
"Vortigern".<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Geoffrey"></a><b>Breton King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">Geoffrey of Monmouth recorded Arthur as a
High-King of Britain. He was the son of his predecessor, Uther Pendragon and
nephew of King Ambrosius. As a descendant of High-King Eudaf Hen's nephew,
Conan Meriadoc, Arthur's grandfather, had crossed the Channel from Brittany and
established the dynasty at the beginning of the 5th century. The Breton King
Aldrien had been asked to rescue Britain from the turmoil in which it found
itself after the Roman administration had departed. He sent his brother,
Constantine, to help. Constantine appears to have been the historical self-proclaimed
British Emperor who took the last Roman troops from Britain in a vain attempt
to assert his claims on the Continent in 407. Chronologically speaking, it is
just possible he was King Arthur's grandfather. Arthur's Breton Ancestry was
recorded by Gallet.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Riothamus"></a><b>Riothamus the King</b><br />
</span><a href="http://www.britannia.com/history/h17.html"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Geoffrey Ashe</span></b></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">argues that King Arthur was an historical King in Brittany
known to history as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Riothamus</span></i><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, a title meaning
"Greatest-King". His army is recorded as having crossed the channel
to fight the Visigoths in the Loire Valley in 468. Betrayed by the Prefect of
Gaul, he later disappeared from history. Ashe does not discuss Riothamus'
ancestry. He, in fact, appears quite prominently in the pedigree of the Kings
of DomnonŽe, dispite attempts to equate him with a Prince of Cornouaille named
Iaun Reith. Riothamus was probably exiled to Britain during one of the many
civil wars that plagued Brittany. He later returned in triumph to reclaim his
inheritance, but was later killed in an attempt to expel Germanic invaders. The
main trouble with this Arthurian identification is that it pushes King Arthur
back fifty years from his traditional period at the beginning of the sixth
century<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(See
Ashe 1985)</span></em><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="WelshTrad"></a><b>Dumnonian King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">Welsh tradition also sees Arthur as High-King of
Britain but tends to follow the genealogies laid down in the Mostyn MS117 and
the Bonedd yr Arwr. These show Arthur as grandson of Constantine but, this
time, he is Constantine Corneu, the King of Dumnonia. Traditional Arthurian
legend records three Kings of Dumnonia during Arthur's reign: Constantine's
son, Erbin; grandson, Gereint and great grandson, Cado. Nowhere is there any
indication that these three were closely related to Arthur, nor that he had any
claim on the Dumnonian Kingdom. Nor is their any explanation as to why a
Dumnonian prince would have been raised to the High-Kingship of Britain.
Arthur's connection with this area of Britain is purely due to his supposedly
being conceived at Tintagel, the residence of his mother's first husband, and
buried at<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.britannia.com/history/abbey.html"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Glastonbury</span></b></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, the most ancient Christian site in the country.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Goodrich"></a><b>Cumbrian King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">The Clan Campbell trace their tribal pedigree
back to one<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>Arthur ic
Uibar</i><span style="background: white;">: the Arthur son of Uther of tradition.
Norma Lorre Goodrich uses this fact to argue that Arthur was a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>"Man of the North"</i><span style="background: white;">. This idea was first proposed by the Victorian
Antiquary, W.F.Skene, and there is some evidence to recommend it, especially
the possible northern location of Nennius' twelve battles. Goodrich places
Arthur's Court at Carlisle. As the capital of the Northern British Kingdom of
Rheged, this seems an unlikely home for Arthur, who was not of this dynasty.
Prof. Goodrich relies heavily on late medieval literary sources and draws
imaginative conclusions.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em>(See
Goodrich 1986 & Skene 1868)</em><span style="background: white;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Pennine"></a><b>Pennine King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">There<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>was</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">a Northern British King named Arthwys who lived in the
previous generation to the traditional Arthur. He was of the line of Coel Hen
(the Old) and probably ruled over a large Kingdom in the Pennines. Many of
Nennius' Arthurian Battles are often said to have taken place in the Northern
Britain. These and other northern stories associated with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>the</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">King Arthur may, in reality, have been relating the achievements
of this near contemporary monarch.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Elmet"></a><b>King of Elmet</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">Another Northern British Arthwys was the son of
Masgwid Gloff, probably a King of the Elmet region of modern West Yorkshire.
Nothing is known of this Prince who was exactly contemporary with the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>real</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">King's traditional period. Though it is unlikely that
he held his own kingdom, his exploits may have contributed to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>King Arthur</i><span style="background: white;">'s story.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Carroll"></a><b>Scottish King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">The Scots, though fresh from Ireland, also used
the name Arthur for a Royal Prince. Artur, the son of King Aidan of Dalriada,
was probably born in the 550s. David F. Carroll has recently argued that this
man was the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>real</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">Arthur, ruling Manau Gododdin from Camelon (alias
Camelot) in Stirlingshire. Details can be found on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.webworld.co.uk/mall/arthur/home.htm"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">the author's web site</span></b></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(Carroll 1996)</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Phillips"></a><b>Powysian King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">Graham Phillips and Martin Keatman identify
Arthur as Owain Ddantwyn (White-Tooth), a late 5th century Prince of the House
of Cunedda (more specifically of Gwynedd). Their arguments, however, are wholly
unconvincing, and contain many unresolved discrepancies. Owain's son,
Cuneglasus (known from Welsh pedigrees as Cynlas) was among the five Celtic
Kings condemned in the writings of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/karef.html#Gildas"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Gildas</span></b></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<span style="background: white;">Through a misinterpretation of this account,
Keatman & Phillips imply that Cuneglasus was the son of one Arth, ie.
Arthur. They further claim that he, and therefore his father, Owain, before
him, must have ruled Powys, as this is the only Kingdom un-reconciled with
Gildas' Kings. However, Cynlas<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>lived</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">at<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>Din</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">Arth in Rhos. He was not the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>son of</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">Arth. In traditional Welsh manner the Kingdom of
Gwynedd had been divided between his father, Owain, who received Eastern Gwynedd
(ie. Rhos) and his uncle, Cadwallon Lawhir (Long-Hand) who took the major
Western portion. During this period, Cyngen Glodrydd (the Renowned) was ruling
Powys. He was probably the Aurelius Caninus mentioned by Gildas.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em>(See Phillips & Keatman
1992)</em><span style="background: white;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Devere"></a><b>Rhos King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">A much simpler and thoroughly more convincing
thesis from Mark Devere Davies suggests that Arthur may have been Cuneglasus
himself. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<a href="" name="Dyfed"></a><b>Dyfed King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">A King Arthwyr ruled in Dyfed in the late 6</span><sup>th</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">century. He was the son of King Pedr ap Cyngar, but
little else is known of him. Though he was probably merely named after the
great man, it is possible that some of his accomplishments may have become
attached to the traditional legend.</span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Blackett"></a><b>Glamorgan King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">Baram Blackett & Alan Wilson have theorised
that the legendary King Arthur was an amalgam of two historical characters:
Anwn (alias Arthun), the British King who conquered Greece and Athrwys (alias
Arthwys) the King of Glywyssing and Gwent. Arthun was a son of the British
Emperor<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.britannia.com/history/biographies/maximus.html"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Magnus Maximus</span></b></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, who lived in the late 4th
century. He is better known as Anwn (alias Dynod) and his title of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">King of Greece</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">is generally thought to be a
misreading of his Latin name, Antonius Gregorius. He actually ruled much of
South Wales. Arthwys of Glwyssing & Gwent is widely accepted as a seventh
century King who lived in South-East Wales. His home in the traditional
Arthurian region around Caerleon is part of this man's attraction. Blackett
& Wilson argue, not unconvincingly, that he really lived in the early 6th
century and that his father, King Meurig was called "Uther
Pendragon", a title meaning<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wonderful Commander</span></i><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. They also make the
important assertion that Arthur lived, not in Cerniw (ie. Cornwall), but in Cernyw
(ie. Glywyssing).<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(See
Blackett & Wilson 1980)</span></em><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Barber"></a><b>St. Arthmael the King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">Like Blackett & Wilson, Chris Barber &
David Pykitt identify<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i>the</i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">King Arthur with King Athrwys of Glywyssing &
Gwent. However, here the similarity stops, for there are important differences
in the identification of people, places and events. Their major addition is the
supposition that after Camlann, Arthur/Athrwys abdicated and retired to
Brittany where he became an important evangeliser. He was known as St. Armel
(or Arthmael) and his shrine can still be seen at St.Armel-des-Boschaux. Their
ideas have much to commend them and make compelling reading.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em>(See Barber & Pykitt
1993)</em><span style="background: white;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<a href="" name="Artorius"></a><b>Roman King</b><br />
<span style="background: white;">It has been suggested, many times over the
years, that King Arthur may have been a descendant of one Lucius Artorius
Castus: a theme most recently taken up by P.J.F. Turner. Castus was an
historical 2nd century Dalmatian general stationed in Britain who commanded the
Roman auxiliary troops, known as Sarmations, on an expedition to crush an uprising
in Armorica. It is highly unlikely that the two had any connection with each
other.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><em>(See Turner
1993)</em><span style="background: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Holy Grail</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Tradition: The Holy Grail
was a vessel used by Christ at the Last Supper. Given to his grand-uncle, </span><a href="http://www.britannia.com/history/artbios/joseph.html"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">St. Joseph of
Arimathea</span></b></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, it was used by him to
collect Christ's blood and sweat while Joseph tended him on the Cross. After
Christ's death, Joseph was apparently imprisoned in a rock tomb similar to the
one he had given for the body of his grand-nephew. Left to starve, he was
sustained for several years by the power of the Grail which provided him with
fresh food and drink every morning. Later, St. Joseph travelled to Britain with
his family and several followers. He settled at Ynys Witrin (Glastonbury), but
the Grail was taken to </span><a href="http://www.britannia.com/history/arthur/corbenic.html"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Corbenic</span></b></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> where it was housed in a spectacular castle,
guarded always by the Grail Kings, descendants of Joseph's daughter, Anna
(Enygeus) and her husband, Brons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Centuries later, the location of the
Great Castle of Corbenic became forgotten. At the Court of King Arthur,
however, it was prophesied that the Grail would one day be rediscovered by a
descendant of St. Joseph: the best knight in the land, the only man capable of
sitting in the mysterious Siege Perilous. When such a man arrived in the form
of Galahad, the son of Lancelot, along with a miraculous, though brief, vision
of the Grail itself, a quest to find this holiest of relics began. Through many
adventures and many years, the Knights of the Round Table crossed Britain from
one end to another in their search. Perceval (Peredyr) discovered the castle in
a land that was sickly like its spear-wounded King. When entertained by this
"Fisher" or "Grail King", however, he failed to ask of the
grail and left empty-hand. Lancelot next reached Corbenic, but was prevented
from entering because of he was an adulterer. Finally Galahad arrived. He was
permitted entry to the Grail Chapel and allowed to gaze upon the great cup. His
life became complete and together grail and man were lifted up to heaven.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="http://www.britannia.com/history/arthur/chalice.jpg" height="151" hspace="8" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1030" width="200" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Names: The Holy
Grail first appears as simply "a grail" in the works of Chrétien de
Troyes. The word is probably derived from the Old French word graal meaning a
"broad and capacious dish or salver". Though usually thought of as
being a cup or chalice, the Grail has indeed been variously described as a
platter, dish, a cornucopia, horn of plenty or even a book or a stone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The name of the Castle of Corbenic
has competing explanations. Old Welsh Cors, meaning "Horn," the Horn
of Plenty as the Grail is sometimes described may have become confused with the
Old French Corps, producing Corps-Benoit meaning "Holy Body," ie. the
Body of Christ. More likely, however, is the suggestion that Corbenic stems
from Corbin-Vicus. The ending is almost certainly derived from the Latin for
"Settlement," while Corben is a French translation of the word Crow
or Raven: Bran in Welsh. This was also a man's name and, as Brons, he appears
as St. Joseph's son-in-law, one of the first Grail Kings. Hence Corbenic was
"Bran's Settlement". It may be identical to the home of Lancelot's
father, Caer-Benwick.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ancient Origins: The quest for
a divine vessel was a popular theme in Arthurian legend long before medieval
writers introduced the Holy Grail to British mythology. It appears in the
Mabinogion tale of Culhwch and Olwen, but particularly well-known is the story
of the Preiddeu Annwfn or "Spoils of the Otherworld" as recounted by
Taliesin. Arthur and his warriors sail off to the Celtic Otherworld to capture
the pearl-rimmed Cauldron of Annwfn: like the grail it was a giver of plenty,
but also of prophecy. It was at last discovered at Caer-Siddi (or Wydyr), an
island bound castle of glass, where it was guarded by nine divine maidens; but
the ensuing perils were too much for even Arthur's men. The mission was
abandoned and only seven of their number returned home.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
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alt="http://www.britannia.com/history/arthur/gundestrup.gif" style='position:absolute;
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z-index:13;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square;mso-wrap-distance-left:6pt;
mso-wrap-distance-top:0;mso-wrap-distance-right:6pt;
mso-wrap-distance-bottom:0;mso-position-horizontal:right;
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<w:wrap type="square" anchory="line"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="right" alt="http://www.britannia.com/history/arthur/gundestrup.gif" height="145" hspace="8" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image019.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1029" width="228" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Celtic Cauldrons were used in ceremonial feasting as early
as the Late Bronze Age. Ritual deposits in Llyn Fawr (Glamorgan) included such
vessels, though the best known example is the Gundestrup Cauldron found in the
peat bogs of Jutland (Denmark). Highly decorated with portraits of many Celtic
deities, this vessel would once have held up to twenty-eight and a half gallons
of liquid. These finds clearly point to the religious importance of cauldrons,
as found in the Arthurian stories and even older Celtic mythological parallels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The magic Otherworld vessel was the
Cauldron of Ceridwen, the Celtic Goddess of Inspiration. She is remembered
today in the archetypal hideous cauldron-stirring witch. She once set about
brewing a drink of knowledge and wisdom for her hideous son, but her
kitchen-boy, Gwion, accidentally tasted the concoction, preventing anyone else
from benefitting from its affects. A great battle of wills ensued, for Gwion
now held all the knowledge to escape the Goddess' wrath. The two changed
themselves into various animals in an attempt to outwit each other before Gwion
was swallowed whole as a grain of wheat. He was eventually reborn as the great
bard, Taliesin!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
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z-index:14;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square;mso-wrap-distance-left:6pt;
mso-wrap-distance-top:0;mso-wrap-distance-right:6pt;
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o:title="warcauld"/>
<w:wrap type="square" anchory="line"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="http://www.britannia.com/history/arthur/warcauld.gif" height="226" hspace="8" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="145" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The cauldron then
reappears in the story of Bran Fendigaid (the Blessed), not only as a vessel of
knowledge and plenty, but also of rebirth. The great Celtic warrior God, Bran,
obtained his life-giving vessel from a giantess (or thinly veiled Ceridwen) who
had been expelled from a Lake in Ireland. The Emerald Isle here personifies the
Celtic Otherworld. The magic vessel would restore to life the body of any dead
warrior placed within it: a scene apparently depicted on the Gundestrup
Cauldron. Bran's sister marries the King of Ireland and they are given the
cauldron as a wedding gift. However, when hostilities between the two countries
break out, Bran travels across the ocean to regain this dangerous prize. He is
eventually successful, but is wounded by a poisoned spear and, like Arthur,
only seven of his men return home. The name, the castle (already discussed),
the wound, the mystic vessel, the journey: Bran Fendigaid is clearly Brons, the
Grail King, son-in-law of Joseph of Arimathea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">ROBIN HOOD OF
SHERWOOD FOREST<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">In this our
spacious isle I think there is not one,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">But he of ROBIN
HOOD hath heard and Little John;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">And to the end of
time the tales shall ne'er be done<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Of Scarlock, George
a Green, and Much the miller's son,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Of Tuck, the merry
friar, which many a sermon made<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">In praise of ROBIN
HOOD, his outlaws and their trade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">DRAYTON.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="mego-robin-hood-loose-set.jpg" height="195" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_15" width="251" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">EVERY reader of "Ivanhoe," at the mention of
Richard the Crusader, will be reminded of Robin Hood, the noble outlaw of
Sherwood Forest, and his band of merry bowmen. With these we next concern
ourselves, and if the reader will pardon the dry outlines of the historian
before proceeding to the more interesting and imaginative story of the
ballad−singer, we will at first state what so careful an antiquary as Mr.
Ritson considers to be truly trustworthy in Robin Hood's history.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Robin
Hood was born at Locksley, in the county of Nottingham, in the reign of King
Henry II, and about the year of Christ 1160. His extraction was noble, and his
true name Robert Fitzooth, which vulgar pronunciation easily corrupted into
Robin Hood. He is frequently styled, and commonly reputed to have been, Earl of
Huntingdon; a title to which, in the latter part of his life at least, he
actually appears to have had some sort of pretension. In his youth he is
reported to have been of a wild and extravagant disposition, insomuch that, his
inheritance being consumed or forfeited by his excesses, and his person
outlawed for debt, either from necessity or choice he sought an asylum in the
woods and forests, with which immense tracts, especially in the northern part
of the kingdom, were at that time covered. Of these he chiefly affected
Barnsdale, in Yorkshire; Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and, according to some,
Plompton Park in Cumberland. Here he either found or was afterwards joined by a
number of persons in similar circumstances, who appear to have considered and
obeyed him as their chief or leader.... Having for a long series of years
maintained a sort of independent sovereignty, and set kings, judges, and
magistrates at defiance, a proclamation was published, offering a considerable
reward for bringing him in either dead or alive; which, however, seems to have
been productive of no greater success than former attempts for that purpose. At
length the infirmities of old age increasing upon him, and desirous to be
relieved, in a fit of sickness, by being let blood, he applied for that purpose
to the prioress of Kirkley nunnery in Yorkshire, his relative (women, and
particularly religious women, being in those times somewhat better skilled in
surgery than the sex is at present), by whom he was treacherously suffered to
bleed to death. This event happened on the 18th November, 1247, being the thirty−first
year of King Henry III.; and if the date assigned to his birth be correct,
about the eighty−seventh year of his age. He was interred under some trees at a
short distance from the house; a stone being placed over his grave, with an
inscription to his memory. There are some who will have it that Robin Hood was
not alive in the reign of Richard I., and who will have it that he preferred
other forests to Sherwood. But the stories that we have chosen are of the Robin
Hood of Sherwood Forest and of King Richard the Lion−hearted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">LITTLE JOHN.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">The
lieutenant of Robin Hood's band was named Little John, not so much from his
smallness in stature (for he was seven feet high and more), as for a reason
which I shall tell later. And the manner in which Robin Hood, to whom he was
very dear, met him was this. Robin Hood on one occasion being hunting with his
men and finding the sport to be poor, said: "We have had no sport now for
some time. So I go abroad alone. And if I should fall into any peril whence I
cannot escape I will blow my horn that ye may know of it and bear me aid."
And with that he bade them adieu and departed alone, having with him his bow
and the arrows in his quiver. And passing shortly over a brook by a long bridge
he met at the middle a stranger. And neither of the two would give way to the
other. And Robin Hood being angry fitted an arrow to his bow and made ready to
fire. "Truly," said the stranger at this, "thou art a fine
fellow that you must draw your long bow on me who have but a staff by me."
"That is just truly," said<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Robin;
"and so I will lay by my bow and get me a staff to try if your deeds be as
good as your words." And with that he went into a thicket and chose him a
small ground oak for a staff and returned to the stranger. "Now," said
he, "I am a match for you, so let us play upon this bridge, and if one
should fall in the stream the other will have the victory." "With all
my heart," said the stranger; "I shall not be the first to give
out." And with that they began to make great play with their staves. And
Robin Hood first struck the stranger such a blow as warmed all his blood, and
from that they rattled their sticks as though they had been threshing corn.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">And
finally the stranger gave Robin such a crack on his crown that he broke his
head and the blood flowed. But this only urged him the more, so that he
attacked the stranger with such vigor that he had like to have made an end of
him. But he growing into a fury finally fetched him such a blow that he tumbled
him from the bridge into the brook. Whereat the stranger laughed loudly and
long, and cried out to him, "Where art thou now, I prythee, my good
fellow?" And Robin replied, "Thou art truly a brave soul, and I will
have no more to do with thee to−day; so our battle is at an end, and I must
allow that thou hast won the day." And then wading to the bank he pulled
out his horn and blew a blast on it so that the echoes flew throughout the
valley. And at that came fifty bold bowmen out of the wood, all clad in green,
and they made for Robin Hood, and said William Stukely, "What is the
matter, my master? you are wet to the skin?" "Truly, nothing is the
matter," said Robin, "but that the lad on the bridge has tumbled me
into the stream." And on that the archers would have seized the stranger
to duck him as well, but Robin Hood forbade them. "No one shall harm thee,
friend," said he.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;"> "These are all my bowmen, threescore and
nine, and if you will be one of us you shall straightway have my livery and
accoutrements, fit for a man. What say you?" "With all my
heart," said the stranger; "here is my hand on it. My name is John
Little, and I will be a good man and true to you." "His name shall be
changed," said William Stukely on this. "We will call him Little
John, and I will be his godfather." So they fetched a pair of fat does and
some humming strong ale, and there they christened their babe Little John, for
he was seven feet high and an ell round at his waist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">FRIAR TUCK.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Now
Robin Hood had instituted a day of mirth for himself and all his companions,
and wagers were laid amongst them who should exceed at this exercise and who at
that; some did contend who should jump farthest, some who should throw the bar,
some who should be swiftest afoot in a race five miles in length; others there
were with which Little John was most delighted, who did strive which of them
should draw the strongest bow, and be the best marksman. "Let me
see," said Little John, "which of you can kill a buck, and who can
kill a doe, and who is he can kill a hart, being distant from it by the space
of five hundred feet." With that, Robin Hood going before them, they went
directly to the forest, where they found good store of game feeding before
them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">William
Scarlock, that drew the strongest bow of them all, did kill a buck, and Little John
made choice of a barren fat doe, and the well−directed arrow did enter in the
very heart of it; and Midge, the miller's son, did kill a hart above five
hundred feet distant from him. The hart falling, Robin Hood stroked him gently
on the shoulder, and said unto him, "God's blessing on thy heart, I will
ride five hundred miles to find a match for thee." William Scarlock,
hearing him speak these words, smiled and said unto him, "Master, what
needs that? Here is a Curtal Friar* not far off, that for a hundred pound will
shoot at what distance yourself will propound, either with Midge or with
yourself. An experienced man he is, and will draw a bow with great strength; he
will shoot with yourself, and with all the men you have, one after
another."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"The
Curtal Friar," Dr. Stukely says, "is Cordelier, from the cord or rope
which they wore round their waist, to whip themselves with. They were,"
adds he, "of the Franciscan order. Our Friar, however, is undoubtedly so
called from his Curtal dogs, or curs, as we now say." Thoms. Early Prose
Romances: in which, by the way, may be found many of the tales of Robin Hood
printed here, and much more besides of interest. "Sayest thou so,
Scarlock?" replied Robin Hood. "By the grace of God I will neither
eat nor drink till I see this Friar thou dost speak of." And having
prepared himself for his journey, he took Little John and fifty of his best
archers with him, whom he bestowed in a convenient place, as he himself thought
fitting. This being done, he ran down into the dale, where he found the Curtal
Friar walking by the water side. He no sooner espied him, but presently he took
unto him his broadsword and buckler, and put on his head a steel bonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">The
Friar, not knowing who he was, or for what intent he came, did presently arm
himself to encounter with him. Robin Hood, coming near unto him, alighted from
his horse, which he tied to a thorn that grew hard by, and looking wistfully on
the Friar, said unto him, "Carry me over the water, thou Curtal Friar, or
else thy life lies at the stake." The Friar made no more ado, but took up
Robin Hood and carried him on his back; deep water he did stride; he spake not
so much as one word to him, but having carried him over, he gently laid him down
on the side of the bank; which being done, the Friar said to Robin Hood,
"It is now thy turn; therefore carry me over the water, thou bold fellow,
or sure I shall make thee repent it." Robin Hood, to requite the courtesy,
took the Friar on his back, and not speaking the least word to him, carried him
over the water, and laid him gently down on the side of the bank; and turning
to him, he spake unto him as at first, and bade him carry him over the water
once more, or he should answer it with the forfeit of his life. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">The
Friar in a smiling manner took him up, and spake not a word till he came in the
midst of the stream, when, being up to the middle and higher, he did shake him
from off his shoulders, and said unto him, "Now choose thee, bold fellow,
whether thou wilt sink or swim." Robin Hood, being soundly washed, got him
up on his feet, and prostrating himself, did swim to a bush of<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">broom
on the other side of the bank; and the Friar swam to a willow tree which was
not far from it. Then Robin Hood, taking his bow in his hand, and one of his
best arrows, did shoot at the Friar, which the Friar received in his buckler of
steel, and said unto him, "Shoot on, thou bold fellow; if thou shootest at
me a whole summer's day I will stand your mark still." "That will
I," said Robin Hood, and shot arrow after arrow at him, until he had not
an arrow left in his quiver. He then laid down his bow, and drew out his sword,
which but two days before had been the death of three men. Now hand to hand
they went with sword and buckler; the steel buckler defends whatsoever blow is
given; sometimes they make at the head, sometimes at the foot, sometimes at the
side; sometimes they strike directly down, sometimes they falsify their blows,
and come in foot and arm, with a free thrust at the body; and being ashamed
that so long they exercise their unprofitable valor and cannot hurt one
another, they multiply their blows, they hack, they hew, they slash, they foam.
At last Robin Hood desired the Friar to hold his hand, and to give him leave to
blow his horn.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">"Thou
wantest breath to sound it," said the Friar; "take thee a little
respite, for we have been five hours at it by the Fountain Abbey clock."
Robin Hood took his horn from his side, and having sounded it three times, behold
where fifty lusty men, with their bended bows, came to his assistance. The
Friar, wondering at it, "Whose men," said he, "be these?"
"They are mine," said Robin Hood; "what is that to thee?"
"False loon," said the Friar; and making a little pause, he desired
Robin Hood to show him the same courtesy which he gave him. "What is
that?" said Robin Hood. "Thou soundest thy horn three times,"
said the Friar; "let me now but whistle three times." "Ay, with
all my heart," said Robin Hood; "I were to blame if I should deny
thee that courtesy." With that the Friar set his fist to his mouth, and
whistled three times so shrilly that the place echoed again with it; and behold
three and fifty fair ban−dogs (their hair rising on their back, betokening
their rage), were almost on the backs of Robin Hood and his companions.
"Here is for every one of thy men a dog," said the Friar, "and
two for thee." "That is foul play," said Robin Hood. He had
scarce spoken that word but two dogs came upon him at once, one before, another
behind him, who, although they could not touch his flesh (his sword had made so
swift a despatch of them), yet they tore his coat into two pieces. By this time
the men had so laid about them that the dogs began to fly back, and their fury
to languish into barking. Little John did so bestir himself, that the Curtal
Friar, admiring at his courage and his nimbleness, did ask him who he was. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">He
made him answer, "I will tell the truth, and not lie. I am he who is
called Little John, and de belong to Robin Hood, who hath fought with thee this
day, five hours together; and if thou wilt not submit unto him, this arrow
shall make thee." The Friar, perceiving how much he was overpowered, and
that it was impossible for him to deal with so many at once, did come to
composition with Robin Hood. And the articles of agreement were these: That the
Friar should abandon Fountain Dale and Fountain Abbey, and should live with
Robin Hood, at his place not far from Nottingham, where for saying of mass, he
should receive a noble for every Sunday through out the year, and for saying
mass on every holy day, a new change of garment. The Friar, contented with these
conditions, did seal the agreement. And thus by the courage of Robin Hood and his
yeomen, he was enforced at the last to submit, having for seven long years kept
Fountain Dale, not all the power thereabouts being able to bring him on his
knees.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">But
Friar Tuck was the only man of the clergy with whom Robin had friendly
dealings. As a rule these churchmen fared as did the Bishop of Hereford in the
following ballad, which we add for the sake of an example of the manner in
which this True History of Robin Hood has come down to us from the year 1245:−<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 104.0pt;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ROBIN HOOD AND HIS ADVENTURES.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"They say he is already in the
forest of Arden, and a many merry men with him; and there they live like the
old Robin Hood of England... and fleet the time carelessly as they did in the
golden world."− <b><i>AS YOU LIKE IT.<o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">AS has been already said, some of the ballad makers have so
far erred from the truth as to represent Robin Hood as being outlawed by Henry
VIII., and several stories are told of Queen Katherine's interceding with her husband
for the pardon of the bold outlaw.* However this may be, it is known that Robin
Hood once shot a match on the queen's side against the king's archers, and here
is the story:−<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 15.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This seems to have been the opinion
of the author from whom we draw the following account of our hero's life,− to
show how the doctors will disagree even on a topic as important as Robin Hood:−<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">THE NOBLE BIRTH AND THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF ROBIN HOOD.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"Robin Hood was descended from
the noble family of the Earl of Huntingdon, and being outlawed by Henry VIII.
for many extravagancies and outrages he had committed, he did draw together a
company of such bold and licentious persons as himself, who lived for the most
part on robberies committed in or near unto Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire.
He had these always ready at his command, so that if need did require he at the
winding of his horn would have fifty or more of them in readiness to assist
him. He whom he most affected was called Little John by reason of his low
stature, though not inferior to any of them in strength of body and stoutness
of spirit. He would not entertain any into his service whom he had not first
fought with himself and made sufficient trial of his courage and dexterity how
to use his weapons, which was the reason that oftentimes he came home hurt and
beaten as he was; which was nevertheless no occasion of the diminution of his
love to the person whom he fought with, for ever afterwards he would be the
more familiar with him, and better respect him for it. Many petitions were
referred to the king for a pardon for him, which the king (understanding of the
many mad pranks he and his associates played) would give no ear unto; but being
attended with a considerable guard, did make a progress himself to find him out
and bring him to condign punishment. At last, by the means and mediation of
Queen Katherine the king's wrath was qualified, and his pardon sealed, and he
spent his old age in peace, at a house of his own, not far from Nottingham,
being generally beloved and respected by all."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Robin Hood on one occasion sent a
present to Queen Katherine with which she was so pleased that she swore she
would be a friend to the noble outlaw as long as she might live. So one day the
queen went to her chamber and called to her a page of her company and bade him
make haste and prepare to ride to Nottinghamshire to find Robin Hood in
Sherwood Forest; for the queen had made a match with the king, her archers
against his archers, and the queen proposed to have Robin Hood and his band to
shoot on her side against the king's archers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 4.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now as for the page, he started for
Nottingham and posted all the way, and inquired on the road for Robin Hood,
where he might be, but he could not find any one who could let him know
exactly. So he took up his quarters at an inn at Nottingham. And in the room of
the inn he sat him down and called for a bottle of Rhenish wine, and he drank
the queen's health out of it. Now at his side was sitting a yeoman of the
country, clad in Lincoln green, with a long bow in his hand. And he turned to
the page and asked him, "What is thy business, my sweet boy, so far in the
north country, for methinks you must come from London?" So then the page
told him that it was his business to find Robin Hood the outlaw, and for that
he asked every yeoman that he met. And he asked his friend if he knew anything
which might help him. "Truly," said the yeoman, "that I do. And
if you will get to horse early to−morrow morning I will show you Robin Hood and
all his gay yeomen."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So the next morning they got them to
horse and rode out into the forest, and the yeoman brought the page to where
were Robin Hood and his yeomen. And the page fell down on his knee and said to
Robin Hood, "Queen Katherine greets you well by me, and hath sent you this
ring as a token. She bids you post up to London town, for that there shall be
some sport there in which she has a mind you shall have a hand." And at
this Robin took off his mantle of Lincoln green from his back and sent it by
the page to Queen Katherine with a promise that he and his band would follow
him as soon as they might.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So Robin Hood clothed all his men in
Lincoln green and himself in scarlet, and each man wore a black hat with a
white feather stuck therein. And thus Robin Hood and his band came up to
London. And Robin fell down on his knees before the queen, and she bade him
welcome with all his band. For the match between the queen's archers and the
king's was to come off the next day in Finsbury fields.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 4.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Here first came the king's archers
marching with bold bearing, and then came Robin Hood and his archers for the
queen. And they laid out the marks there. And the king laid a wager with the
queen on the shooting. Now the wager was three hundred tun of Rhenish, and
three hundred tun of good English beer, and three hundred fat harts. So then
the queen asked if there were any knights with the king who would take her
side. But they were unwilling, for said they, "How shall we bet on these
men whom we have never seen, when we know Clifton and the rest of the king's
archers, and have seen them shoot?" Now this Clifton was one of the king's
archers and a great boaster. And when he had reached the shooting field he had
cried out, "Measure no marks for us, my lord the king, for we will shoot
at the sun and moon." But for all that Robin Hood beat him at the
shooting. And the queen asked the Bishop of Herefordshire to back her archers.
But he swore by his mitre that he would not bet a single penny on the queen's
archers for he knew them not. "What will you bet against them," asked
Robin Hood at this, "since you think our shooting is the worse?"
"Truly," said the bishop, "I will bet all the money that may be
in my purse," and he pulled it up from where it hung at his side.
"What is in your purse?" asked Robin Hood. And the bishop tossed it
down on the ground saying, "Fifteen rose−nobles, and that's an hundred
pound." So Robin Hood tossed out a bag beside the bishop's purse on the
green.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And with that they began shooting, and shot three bouts and
they came out even; the king's and the queen's. "The next three
shots," said the king, "shall pay for all." And so the king's
archers shot, and then Robin Hood, and Little John and Midge the miller's son
shot for the queen, and came every man of them nearer the prick in the willow
wand than did any of the king's men. So the queen's archers having beaten,
Queen Katherine asked a boon of the king, and he granted it. "Give me, I
pray you," said the queen, "safe conduct for the archers of my party
to come and to go home and to stay in London here some time to enjoy
themselves." "I grant it," said the king. "Then you are
welcome, Robin Hood," said the queen, "and so is Little John and
Midge the miller's son and every one of you." "Is this Robin
Hood?" asked the king, "for I had heard that he was killed in a
quarrel in the north country." And the bishop too asked, "Is this
Robin Hood? If I had known that I would not have bet a penny with him. He took
me one Saturday evening and bound me fast to a tree, and there he made me sing
a mass for him and his yeomanry about." "Well, if I did," said
Robin Hood, "surely I needed all the masses that I might get for my
soul." And with that he and his yeomanry departed, and when their safe
conduct was expired they journeyed north again to Sherwood Forest.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ROBIN HOOD AND THE BEGGAR.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 4.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But Robin Hood, once having supplied
himself with good store of money, which he had gotten of the sheriff of
Nottingham, bought him a stout gelding, and riding on him one day towards
Nottingham, it was his fortune to meet with a poor beggar. Robin Hood was of a
frolic spirit, and no accepter of persons; but observing the beggar to have several
sorts of bags, which were fastened to his patched coat, he did ride up to him,
and giving him the time of day, he demanded of him what countryman he was.
"A Yorkshireman," said the beggar; "and I would desire of you to
give me something." "Give thee!" said Robin Hood; "why, I
have nothing to give thee. I am a poor ranger in the forest, and thou seemest
to be a lusty knave; shall I give thee a good bastinado over thy
shoulders?" "Content, content," said the beggar; "I durst
lay all my bags to a threaden joust, thou wilt repent it." With that Robin
Hood alighted, and the beggar, with his long quarterstaff, so well defended
himself, that, let Robin Hood do what he could, he could not come within the
beggar, to flash him to a remembrance of his overboldness; and nothing vexed
him more than to find that the beggar's staff was as hard and as obdurate as
iron itself; but not so Robin Hood's head, for the beggar with all his force
did let his staff descend with such a side blow, that Robin Hood, for all his skill,
could not defend it, but the blood came trickling down his face, which, turning
Robin Hood's courage into revenge and fury, he let fly at him with his trusty
sword, and doubled blow upon blow; but perceiving that the beggar did hold him
so hard to it that one of his blows was but the forerunner of another, and
every blow to be almost the Postilion of Death, he cried out to him to hold his
hand. "That will I not do," said the beggar, "unless thou wilt
resign unto me thy horse, and thy sword, and thy clothes, with all the money
thou hast in thy pockets." "The change is uneven," said Robin
Hood, "but for once I am content."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So, putting on the beggar's clothes,
the beggar was the gentleman, and Robin Hood was the beggar, who, entering into
Nottingham town with his patched coat and several wallets, understood that
three brethren were that day to suffer at the gallows, being condemned for
killing the king's deer, he made no more ado, but went directly to the
sheriff's house, where a young gentleman, seeing him to stand at the door,
demanded of him what he would have. Robin Hood returned answer that he came to
crave neither meat nor drink, but the lives of these three brothers who were
condemned to die. "That cannot be," said the young gentleman, "for
they are all this day to suffer according to law, for stealing of the king's
deer, and they are already conveyed out of the town to the place of
execution." "I will be with them presently," said Robin Hood,
and coming to the gallows he found many making great lamentation for them.
Robin Hood did comfort them, and assured them they should not die; and blowing
his horn, behold on a sudden a hundred brave archers came unto him, by whose
help, having released the prisoners, and killed the, hangman, and hurt many of
the sheriff's officers, they took those who were condemned to die for killing
the king's deer along with them, who, being very thankful for the preservation
of their lives, became afterwards of the yeomanry of Robin Hood.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ROBIN HOOD AND KING RICHARD.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 2.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now King Richard, hearing of the
deeds of Robin Hood and his men, wondered much at them, and desired greatly
himself to see him, and his men as well. So he with a dozen of his lords rode
to Nottingham town and there took up his abode. And being at Nottingham, the king
one day with his lords put on friars' gowns every one, and rode forth from
Fountain Abbey down to Barnsdale. And as they were riding there they saw Robin
Hood and all his band standing ready to assail them. The king, being taller
than the rest, was thought by Robin to be the abbot. So he made up to him, and
seized his horse by the head, and bade him stand. "For," said he,
"it is against such knaves as you that I am bound to make war."
"But," said the king himself, "we are messengers from the king,
who is but a little away, waiting to speak with you." "God save the
king," said Robin Hood, "and all his well−wishers. And accursed be
every one who may deny his sovereignty." "You are cursing
yourself," said the king, "for you are a traitor."
"Now," said Robin Hood, "if you were not the king's messenger, I
would make you rue that word of yours. I am as true a man to the king as lives.
And I never yet injured any honest man and true, but only those who make their
living by stealing from others. I have never in my life harmed either
husbandman or huntsman. But my chief spite lies against the clergy, who have in
these days great power. But I am right glad to have met you here. Come with me,
and you shall taste our greenwood cheer." But the king and his lords
marvelled, wondering what kind of cheer Robin might provide for them. And Robin
took the king's horse by the head, and led him towards his tent. "It is
because thou comest from the king," said he, "that I use you in this
wise; and hadst thou as much gold as ever I had, it should be all of it safe
for good King Richard's sake." And with that he took out his horn, and
blew on it a loud blast. And thereat came marching forth from the wood five
score and ten of Robin's followers, and each one bent the knee before Robin
Hood. "Surely," thought the king, "it is a goodly sight to see;
for they are more humble to their master than my servants are to me, Here may
the court learn something from the greenwood." And here they laid a dinner
for the king and his lords, and the king swore that he had never feasted
better. Then Robin Hood, taking a can of ale, said, "Let us now begin,
each man with his can. Here's a health to the king." And they all drank
the health to the king, the king himself, as well as another.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And after the dinner they all took
their bows, and showed the king such archery that the king said he had never
seen such men as they in any foreign land. And then said the king to Robin
Hood, "If I could get thee a pardon from King Richard, wouldst thou serve
the king well in everything?" "Yes, with all my heart," said
Robin. And so said all his men.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And with that the king declared
himself to them, and said, "I am the king, your sovereign, that is now
before you." And at this Robin and all his men fell down on their knees;
but the king raised them up, saying to them that he pardoned each one of them,
and that they should every one of them be in his service. So the king returned
to Nottingham, and with him returned Robin Hood and his men, to the great joy
of the townspeople, whom they had for a long time sorely vexed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 70.0pt; margin-right: 241.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -16.15pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">"And they are gone to London court,
Robin Hood and all his train;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 70.0pt; margin-right: 257.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -10.75pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">He once was there a noble peer, And now
he's there again."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">THE DEATH OF ROBIN HOOD.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But Robin Hood returned to Sherwood Forest, and there met
his death. For one day, being wounded in a fight, he fled out of the battle
with Little John. And being at some distance, Robin Hood said to his
lieutenant, "Now truly I cannot shoot even one shot more, for the arrows
will not fly. For I am sore wounded. So I will go to my cousin, the abbess, who
dwelleth near here in Kirkley Hall, and she shall bleed me, that I may be well
again." So Robin Hood left Little John, and he went his way to Kirkley;
and reaching the Hall, his strength nearly left him, yet he knocked heavily at
the door. And his cousin came down first to let him in. And when she saw him
she knew that it was her cousin Robin Hood, and she received him with a joyful
face. Then said Robin, "You see me, my cousin, how weak I am. Therefore I
pray you to bleed me, that I may be whole again." And his cousin took him
by the hand, and led him into an upper room, and laid him on a bed, and she
bled him. But the treacherous woman tied not up the vein again, but left him so
that his life began to flow from him. And he, finding his strength leaving him,
thought to escape; but he could not, for the door was locked, and the casement
window was so high that he might not leap down from it. Then, knowing that he
must die, he reached forth his hand to his bugle horn, which lay by him on the
bed. And setting the horn to his mouth, be blew weakly, though with all his
strength, three blasts upon it. And Little John, as he sat under the tree in
the greenwood, heard his blowing, and he said, "Now must Robin be near death,
for his blast is very weak."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And he got up and ran to Kirkley Hall as fast as he might.
And coming to the door, he found it locked; but he broke it down, and so came
to Robin Hood. And coming to the bed, he fell upon his knees, and said,
"Master, I beg a boon of thee,− that thou lettest me burn down Kirkley
Hall and all the nunnery." "Nay," quoth Robin Hood; "nay, I
cannot grant you your boon; for never in my life did I hurt woman, or man in
woman's company, nor shall it be done when I die. But for me, give me my long
bow, and I will let fly an arrow, and where you shall find the arrow, there
bury me. And make my grave long and broad, that I may rest easily; and place my
head upon a green sod, and place my bow at my side." And these words
Little John readily promised him, so that Robin Hood was pleased. And they
buried him as he had asked, an arrow−shot from Kirkley Hall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Unit – 5: Hindu Mythology<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">1. Stories from Ramayana<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Story
of Maricha Golden Deer in Ramayana</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
Maricha, one of the characters in Ramayana, plays the most notable role in
Ravana’s kidnapping of Sita. Once, demon Sunda (son of Jamba or Jharjha)
attacked the hermitage of Agasthya Rishi. The angry sage burnt him by his
meditative powers. On Sunda’s death, his wife Yaksha Thataka and his sons Mareecha
and Subahu attacked Agastya. The sage cursed them to become demons.<br />
<br />
<b>Vishwamitra’s Yajna</b><br />
<br />
Sage Vishwamitra was performing a sacrifice. He was tormented by Tataka and her
sons. Visvamitra approached Dasaratha, the king of Ayodhya, and requested him
to send his eldest son, Rama to protect his sacrifice. Though with reluctance,
Dasaratha sent 13-year old Rama and his younger brother Lakshmana with
Visvamitra. Near the forest of Tataka, the demoness attacked them. Rama, aided
by Lakshamana, slew her with his arrow. Vishvamitra reached his ashram and
began his sacrifice. On the sixth day, Maricha and his brother Subahu, appeared
and tried to destroy the sacrificial fire. Rama fired his arrow and Maricha was
thrown hundred leagues away. The sacrifice was completed successfully. Under
the guidance of Visvamitra, Rama wed Sita, the adopted daughter of Janaka and
the princess of Mithila.<br />
<br />
<b>Maricha fight with Rama in Dandakaranya</b><br />
<br />
Later, Dasaratha directed Rama for an exile in forest for 14 years, at the
behest of Rama's step mother Kaikeyi. Rama proceeded to forest. Lakshmana and
Sita followed him. The trio travelled through the Dandaka forest to the banks
of the river Godavari, where they built a hermitage at Panchavati. Once,
Maricha saw them and attacked them to wreak vengeance. Rama killed Maricha's
allies, but his arrow narrowly missed Maricha, who fled. Surpanakha, the sister
of Ravana, requested Rama to marry her. Rama refused and directed her to
Lakshmana. Lakshmana joked at her. Surpanakha attacked Sita. Lakshmana cut out
her ears and nose. Surpanakha reached Lanka and prompted Ravana to steal Sita.<br />
<br />
<b>Story Maricha Golden Deer Ramayana</b><br />
<br />
Ravana went to meet his uncle, Maricha. He told Maricha to turn into a golden
deer with silver spots and graze near Rama's ashram. On seeing the deer, Sita
would surely tell Rama and Lakshamana to catch it. When they would leave Sita
alone, Ravana would abduct her. Rama, aggrieved by Sita's separation, would be
easily killed by Ravana. Maricha dissuaded Ravana. Ravana reiterated his plan
and finally Maricha agreed.<br />
<br />
<b>Maricha’s disguise as Golden Deer</b><br />
<br />
Maricha and Ravana flew to Panchavati. Maricha assumed the form of a beautiful
golden deer, which had silver spots. It appeared in the vicinity of Rama's
ashram. Sita was collecting flowers. The golden deer lured Sita, who called
Rama and Lakshmana to see it. Lakshmana sensed foul play and suggested that the
deer was Maricha. Sita persuaded Rama to get her the deer. Rama asked Lakshmana
to take care of Sita and went after the deer. Maricha ran, followed by Rama.
After a long chase, Rama shot him down. Maricha took his real form and cried
out mimicking Rama's voice "Oh Sita! Oh Lakshmana!" Sita asked
Lakshmana to go and search for Rama. Lakshmana insisted that no one could harm
Rama. Worried Sita ordered Lakshmana to go. Lakshmana reluctantly left.
Immediately, Ravana appeared as a mendicant. Sita stepped forward to give him
alms and he kidnapped her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">The Burning of Lanka<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ravana was shocked
and amazed to learn that<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><strong><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Akshay Kumar</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">had been killed and wondered about the power
of the monkey who killed him. He sent his son Meghnad and told him not to kill
the monkey but capture him and bring him to court so that he could see him and
find out who had sent him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Meghnad took a
chariot and soldiers to confrontHanuman who was busy destroying the gardens.
Meghnad challenged Hanuman and a fierce battle ensues. In spite of using all
his strength, he could not<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="ilad"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">overpower</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Hanuman.
So he used the amogh Bramhpash, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="ilad"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">noose</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that
cannot miss its aim, towards Hanuman who gets caught in it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As
the noose belongs to Brahma, Hanuman respected it and did not break
out of it, Meghnad dragged the captiveHanuman through the streets of
Lanka as he lead him to Ravana. People thronged to view the vanara (monkey) who
had destroyed <b>Ashok Vatika</b> (garden of Ashoka trees).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To Ravana, Hanuman
introduced himself as a messenger of Rama. Enraged,Ravana ordered him to be
killed at once. But, Vibheeshan, as a minister of court said that messengers
couldn’t be killed. ThenRavana said that monkeys are very fond of their tails
so we will tie rags around his tail and set it on fire after dipping
it in oil. As they began wrapping cloth around his tail, Hanuman made
his tail grow longer till in fact all the cloth in Lanka is used up.
When his tail was set on fire, Hanuman took on a small form and
jumped on the terrace of the royal palace. Then he set all the
buildings on fire. There was chaos all over Lanka asHanuman set the
entire city on fire. Then he returned to Sita in <b>Ashok Vatika</b> (garden
of Ashoka trees). He asked Sita to give something that would indicate he had
met her. Sita took off her Choodamani (armlet) and gave him and said if Rama
does not come there in a month, she would kill herself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://www.shortstories.co.in/corporate-lessons-part-6/" target="_self"><span style="background: #2C3E50; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><br />
</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hanuman crossed the ocean again and rejoined
his group and told them the tale of his burning of Lanka (Lanka dahan) with his<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>tail. They were all happy and
celebrated with a feast of fruits from Sugreeva’s<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">orchard</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Hanuman then bowed down before Rama and
gave him Sita’s message and the choodamani (armlet).<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Shri Rama</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>embraced him and said, “I will be<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">indebted</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to you forever.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Now Rama consulted
with Sugreeva, Jambavat and others about the formation of the army. Soon the
entire army led by Rama and Lakshmana was on their way southward. The huge army
crossed mountains and valleys and a few days later, they reached the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="ilad"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">shore</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">of the sea and set camp there. Now the
problem was to decide how the entire army of monkeys and bears would cross the
ocean. A consultation was held for the options.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2. Stories from Mahabharatha<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">The Kurukshetra </span></b><span lang="EN-IN">War in Mahabharat lasts 18
days, with the Pandavas having 7 Akshaunis or divisions and the Kauravas having
11 Akshaunis, totaling 18 Akshaunis again. Before the war begins, Krishna gives
Arjuna the teaching of the Gita and the Vishwaroopa darshan. Here is a
day-by-day account of important events. If you need to brush up on your
Mahabharat, try these<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.patheos.com/blogs/hindu2/2014/09/mahabharat-pdf-downloads/"><span style="color: black; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-themecolor: text1;">free
ebooks and summary of the whole epic</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 1</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">On the morning of that momentous day the battle
began which led the death of many noble warriors. All of the Kaurava army,
uncaring about their very lives, rushed with raised flags and standards against
the Pandavas, and the Pandava army stood against them with cheering hearts,
Bhima leading them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Duryodhana and his brothers surrounded Bhima,
shooting arrows at him. Then Draupadi’s five sons with the twins Nakula and
Sahadeva and Abhimanyu, Arjuna’s son, rushed against the Kaurava army, tearing
them with their arrows.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">On that first day Uttara, Virata's son –who was
driven by Arjuna – was struck by Shalya, King of Madra, and was killed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Dushasana fought Nakula, attempting to strike him
with many an arrow, but Nakula cut down these arrows, the standard and the bow
of his enemy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Yudishtira fought Shalya, while Drishtadyumna
sought Drona in battle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The King of Panchala fought the King of Sind and
the battle between them was fierce and terrible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 2</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">On the second day the battle raged again, neither
side prevailing over the other but the Kaurava forces lost many soldiers on
this day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Drishtadyumna fought it out with Drona and had to
be rescued by Bhima.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Satyaki killed Bhishma’s charioteer, and the horses
went out of control taking Bhishma off the battlefield.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 3</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">On the third day Bhishma arrayed his forces in the
form of a great bird, an eagle, and the army of the Pandavas was
counter-arrayed in the shape of a half-moon, with the right horn commanded by
Bhima, Yudishtira holding the center, and Arjuna managing the left horn. All
morning, the armies fought and none gave way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In the afternoon, Bhishma, invoked celestial
astras, and mowed down the Pandava army on all sides. Krishna urged Arjuna,
saying, "The hour is come when you must hold to your promise to slaughter
the Kaurava army and fight Bhishmaf. Behold, your army is being destroyed by
him alone." He drove the chariot to where Bhishma's chariot stood.
Beholding him advancing, the Pandava host rallied, while Bhishma covered the
onrushing chariot with his arrows. Arjuna, took Gandiva and sent forth arrows
that cut the grandsire's bow in two. As Bhishma seized and strung another, that
too was cut down.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">With a third bow Bhishma sent forth arrows against
Arjuna. Krishna, with great skill, avoided them but many still struck him and
Arjuna. Krishna saw that Bhishma's arrows were again slaughtering the Pandava
army, while Arjuna was fighting mildly, out of respect for Bhishma.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Afraid of the consequences, Krishna dropped the
reins, leaped from the chariot, and ran toward Bhishma, whirling his discus,
eager to slay him. But Arjuna ran after him, and, throwing his arms at his
feet, stopped him. "Stop, O Krishna! Remember your promise not to fight;
do not let men say you are a liar. I by my weapons, by the truth, by my own
deeds, will destroy our foes. The task is mine." Hearing this, Krishna,
angry still, mounted the car and took up the reins again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Arjuna, drawing Gandiva summoned an astra and
causing a river of blood from the Kaurava army. Every other sound was silenced
by his bow. As the sun set the Kauravas withdrew, Bhishma and Drona with them,
and the Pandavas triumphed that day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 4</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Abhimanyu is attacked by the Kauravas, and is aided
by Arjuna, and Bhima with his mace. Duryodhana sends a huge force of elephants
against him, which Bhima disperses. Finally, Bhima is struck by an arrow and
has to rest a while. He however, kills eight of Duryodhana’s brothers by then.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 5-8</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Every day Bhima slew six to ten of Duryodhana’s
brothers, as per his oath during the gambling game. Therefore the Pandavas,
though they often fought their cousins and struck them wounded, never slew
them, so that Bhima could keep his promise. Several times he and Duryodhana
fought, longing to kill each other, but they were equal neither prevailed. But
Duryodhana, when he went each night to his tent, was overcome with grief, and
wept for his brothers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 9</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Bhishma arrays the troops as a hollow square and
wrecks much havoc upon the Pandava army. The exhausted Pandavas approach
Bhishma at his camp at night, seeking his advice on how they may slay him.
Bhishma tells them to use Shikhandi as a shield, for he would never raise his
bow upon a woman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 10</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The Pandavas send Shikhandi against Bhishma, and
Arjuna coming up behind him sends many arrows against Bhishma. Ten and ten more
pierce Bhishma, who thought pierced by so many does not fall. Then the Pandavas
surround Bhishma and driving off the Kauravas, pierce Bhishma with many an
arrow until no space on his body greater than the breadth of two fingers
remains to be seen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Then Bhishma reeling under the pain falls, but his
body does nottouch the ground and is held up by the arrow shafts. Both armies
stop their battle in honor of the eldest of Bharatas and approach him seeking
his advice. Arjuna gives him a pillow of three shafts to rest his head on and
strikes the ground with a blazing arrow to provide him with a cool jet of sweet
water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Bhishma, with his power to choose the time of his
death, seeks to stay alive till the sun turns to its northern run at the time
of Uttarayana. Thus he lies there on his bed of arrows, waiting for the
faithful moment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 11-12</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Karna enters the battle, thus far kept away by
Bhishma. Drona is made the commander of the army, and Duryodhana asks him to
capture Yudhisthara alive. Drona sets up the Trigarthas to draw away Arjuna
from protecting his elder brother. However, towards the evening of both days,
as Drona approaches Yudhisthara, the Pandava flees.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 13</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Drona, deeply ashamed at failing in his mission,
once again sets the Trigarthas to draw away Arjuna. He now sets up the
indomitable Chakravyuha against the Pandava army. The Pandavas are at a loss to
defend themselves since mong the Pandavas, only Arjuna knows how to break this
array. However, Abhimanyu volunteers his services. But Abhimanyu knows only ow
to break into the array and not how to break out. Yudhisthara and Bhima assure
him that they will follow him closely to ensure that the gates of the formation
stay open.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Abhimanyu sets out with the Pandavas following him,
but inside the complex array, he is separated from the Pandavas by Jayadratha,
who blocks the Pandavas from entering. Abhimanyu continues to the center,
wrecking havoc upon the Kaurava army, until faced in an unfair battle by many
Kaurava warriors including Drona, Karna, Ashwattama and three others, loses his
chariot, horses, weapons and charioteer. He is slain by Dushasana’s son.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">That night, Arjuna hears of the dastardly murder of
his son, and vows to revenge himself upon Jayadratha. If he fails to slay him
by sundown, he vows to immolate himself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 14</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Realizing that Arjuna will kill himself if only
they protect Jayadratha from him till sundown, the Kauravas rally around the
king and keep Arjuna at bay. Drona challenges Arjuna to distract him and they
fight relentlessly, without managing to kill the other. Krishna, anxious that
Arjuna's vow should be kept, drives the chariot forward, leaving Drona behind.
Karna, Drona, Ashwattama and Duryodhana, all surround Arjuna to keep him from
Jayadratha. The fearful fight raged till the sun approached the western hills.
Krishna said to Arjuna, "You cannot kill Jayadratha till you have slain
these warriors. I shall eclipse the sun in darkness so that they will think it
has set and be less careful." Through his divine power, he eclipses the
son, creating darkness and deceiving the Kauravas, who part way, thinking
Arjuna must now take his life. But Arjuna fixes an astra and taking aim at Jayadratha,
lets it loose. Jayadratha’s head is severed just as the eclipse ends and the
sun begins to shine again. Seeing that they were deceived, the Kauravas weep in
sorrow and anger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Duryodhana, distraught, orders his army to fight
through the night, and the two hosts lighting torches, continue their battle.
But so tired are they that men are killed while they fell asleep, and many were
killed by their friends in a daze. During this time, Gathokacha, the rakshasa
son of Bhima wrecks havoc among the Kaurava, until he is felled by the Shakti,
a weapon given to Karna by Indra. Karna was planning to use the Shakti against
Arjuna However, Duryodhana, desperate to end Gathokacha’s carnage pleads with
Karna to use it. Now Karna loses the weapon since it can be used only once and
returns to Indra.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Then the two armies take a break and call a truce
till the moon rises and rest upon the battlefield.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 15</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The battle continues through moonrise and sunrise,
when Drona begins to slaughter the Pandava army. Arjuna and Drona meet in a
fierce battle but no side can prevail. Drona then fights both Virata and
Drupada, killing them both. Seeing that no one can slay this fierce warrior,
Krishna advices that they use deceit to kill him. Yudhisthara reluctantly
agrees and Bhima is odered to kill an elephant named Ashwattaman, the
“horse-voiced.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Then when he is near Drona, he announces loudly, “I
have killed Ashwattaman.” Drona’s legs turn to water, but he cannot believe
that a mighty warrior like Ashwattama could be killed by Bhima. So he turns to
Yudhisthara and asks him, “Is this true?” Yudhisthara, the ever-truthful
replies in the affirmative. Drona is distraught. Overcome, he drops his weapons
and goes into meditation to leave is body. Dristhadyumna in his rage rushes to
the chariot and takes his head off while he is sitting in meditation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Ashwattama enraged by his father’s death, let’s
loose the Narayanastra against the Pandava army. Krishna tells everyone to lay
down their weapons and lie on the ground, since this is the only way the weapon
can be made harmless.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Kunti requests Karna to join the side of the
Pandavas, telling him that he is her eldest son. But Karna says he will spare
all the Pandavas, except Arjuna.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 16</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Shalya is made charioteer of Karna, much to his
dismay because though Karna matches Arjuna in archery, only Shalya can match
Krishna as a charioteer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 17</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Bhima fights Dushasana and kills him, drinking his
blood and taking it in his hands to drape across Draupadi’s hair.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Karna wounds Yudhisthara sorely, who leaves the
battlefield to rest. Hearing this, Arjuna goes to his tent to see how he is.
Yudhisthara however, in pain and anger, insults Arjuna, thinking that he has
run from Karna. In shame and anger, Arjuna draws his sword against Yudhisthara,
and has to be pacified by Krishna. Ashamed at their reckless acts and words,
the two brothers seek each other’s forgiveness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Karna and Arjuna battle each other in a ferocious
fight, until Parashurama’s curse comes true and Karna’s chariot wheel sinks to
the ground. As he gets down to remove the wheel, Krishna urges Arjuna to take
his bow and slay Karna, as there would not be another chance to do so. Arjuna
takes aim at Karna, and Karna is about to retaliate, taking up his bow.
However, the other curse of Parashurama comes true and he forgets his astra
mantras, and is slain by Arjuna.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Day 18</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Shalya is made the commander of the Kauravas and
battles and is killed by Yudhisthara. Shakuni is killed by Sahadeva. No one of
the Kaurava army except Ashwattama, Duryodhana and Kripacharya and Kritavarma
survive the war. Enraged by his loss, Duryodhana heads to a lake to cool down
his body, which has become hot with anger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Krishna takes the Pandavas to the lake and Bhima
taunts Duryodhana out of it. As they fight a mace battle, Duryodhana is
invincible because of his mother Gandhari’s boon that his body is impenetrable.
However, his thighs are vulnerable, and Bhima’s strike’s Duryodhana’s thigh,
felling him. In greta pain, Duryodhana is left to die by the Pandavas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">The Dog<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://dogwithblog.in/i-am-a-nameless-indian-stray-dog/" target="_blank" title="I am a nameless Indian stray dog"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in;">Indian
Pariah Dog</span></a>,
considered by scientists to be the first truly domesticated dog features in the
great Indian epic Mahabharat. The closing chapter narrates the tale of King
Yudhisthira and his brothers (The Pandavas) making a pilgrimage to their final
resting place. Our in-house expert, his highness<a href="http://dogwithblog.in/company-run-by-canine/" target="_blank" title="A company run by canine"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span></span><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in;">Chunnu</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>present Yudhisthira’s dog – Tale
from Mahabharat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 19.2pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The Pandavas were firm in
their resolve to renounce their Kingdom and began the ascent of a mountain as
part of their final journey. Yudhisthira led the way followed by Bheema,
Arjuna, Nakula, Sahadeva and Draupadi. A dog also accompanied them through
their journey.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The first to fall along the way was Draupadi (Yajnaseni).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“Why did she die first, Yudhisthira?” asked Bheema. “Was
she not virtuous, possessing a good heart?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Yudhisthira replied without looking back. “That is true,
but she was more attached to Arjuna. That was her failing.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The next to falter and collapse was Sahadeva.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“What was his failing, O Yudhisthira?” cried Bheema<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Yudhisthira continued walking without looking back, and
replied: “Pride in his intelligence was his failing.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Next fell Nakula.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“What wrong did he do, O Yudhisthira?” wailed Bheema<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Yudhisthira spoke, without looking back: “He admired his
own good looks. That was his failing.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Arjuna collapsed soon after.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“What wrong did Arjuna do, O Yudhisthira?” cried Bheema,
overcome with grief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Yudhisthira was unmoved and kept walking: “He was
brilliant but conceited and over confident. That was his failing.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Bheema fell thereafter, unable to bear the sorrow of
seeing his brothers die.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Yudhisthira spoke while walking on: “Bheema was boastful
about his strength and ate in excess. That was his failing”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">And now only Yudhisthira and the dog were left,
continuing the journey together.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">And finally, Indra descended in his chariot. He praised
the extraordinary qualities of Yudhisthira and invited him into the chariot to
ascend to heaven.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“The dog must come with me,” said Yudhisthira<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“That is not possible,” said Indra. “All cannot attain
heaven. The dog is old and thin and has no value.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“In that case, I do not seek heaven, “replied Yudhisthira. “The dog was
my faithful companion and I cannot abandon it. It sought my help and gave me
unconditional love. The pleasures of heaven will mean nothing to me in
comparison to its grief. It has done nothing to deserve abandonment and had
none of the weaknesses of my wife and brothers. If it does not deserve to go to
heaven, then neither do I.”<br />
And so he turned back.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">“Stop!” cried Indra. “None have the qualities that you
possess, O Yudhisthira! The dog is Dharma, from whom you have descended!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">And indeed, the dog had transformed into the God of
Dharma and blessed Yudhisthira for his complete lack of selfishness and
dedication to righteousness in all circumstances.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">And thus rose Yudhisthira to heaven in the chariot of
Indra.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h1 align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The Bhagavad Gita<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Introduction
to the Bhagavad Gita<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The Bhagavadgita, or the Song of the
Lord, is a dialogue between Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, and his friend
and disciple, Arjuna. This dialogue takes place in the Bhishma Parva of the
Mahabharata. The Bhagavadgita is composed of 700 (or 701) shlokas (verses)
arranged in 18 chapters. It is one of the best-known philosophical texts of
Hinduism, and is said to contain the essence of Upanishadic thought.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The Bhagavadgita occurs just before
the great battle of Mahabharata begins. The army mustered by the five Pandava
brothers was to fight the battle against the army of the Pandava’s cousin,
Duryodhana, who had robbed them (the Pandavas) of their rightful kingdom and
further, refused to participate in any plans for a compromise. After making all
possible attempts to peacefully get back their kingdom, or even the right to
own a mere five villages in the kingdom, the Pandava brothers decided to fight
a war to gain justice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Arjuna, the third of the five Pandava
princes, was perhaps the greatest and most renowned warrior-hero in the Pandava
army. Before the battle began, both Duryodhana and Arjuna went to Krishna to
seek his aid. Krishna said that he would not personally lift weapons and fight
in the battle, but the cousins could choose to have him, unarmed, on their
side, or to have the use of his large army. Arjuna chose to have Krishna with
him, and Duryodhana was delighted to add the vast, skilled army of Krishna to
his forces. Krishna agreed to drive Arjuna’s chariot and thus to be with him
throughtout the battle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Just before the fighting commenced,
Arjuna asked Krishna to place his chariot between the two armies, so that he
could take a good look at his enemy. In the enemy ranks, Arjuna saw his
cousins, other relatives and his teachers. At this crucial moment, Arjuna’s
attachment to his preceptors and family came to the fore, and doubt entered his
mind as to the ‘rightness’ of the battle. In his confusion, he no longer knew
the course of action that he should take, and he turned to Krishna for
guidance. Krishna talked to him, helping him to examine his own motives and
desires, and showing him ways to rise above the limitations of his own
personality to do what was best for him and good for society. This dialogue
between Krishna and Arjuna, is the Bhagavadgita.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The eighteen chapters of the
Bhagavadgita are classified as ‘yoga’s’, starting with the ‘yoga’ of Arjuna’s
depression and ending with the yoga of ‘liberation through renunciation’. The eighteen
chapters are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 1: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">अर्जुनविषादयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">arjunavishadayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Despondancy of Arjuna<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 2: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">संख्यायोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">sankhyayoga<br />
The Yoga of Knowledge<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 3: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">कर्मयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">karmayoga<br />
The Yoga of Action<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 4: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">ज्ञानविभगयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">jyanavibhagayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Division of Wisdom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 5: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">कर्मसंन्यासयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">karmasannyasayoga<br />
The Yoga of Renunciation of Action<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 6: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">ध्यानयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">dhyanayoga<br />
The Yoga of Meditation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 7: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">ज्ञानविज्ञानयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">gyanavigyanayoga<br />
The Yoga of Wisdom and Realisation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 8: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">अक्षरब्रह्मयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">aksharabrahmayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Imperishable Brahman<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 9: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">राजविद्याराजगुह्ययोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">rajavidyarajaguhyayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Kingly Science and the Kingly Secret<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 10: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">विभूतियोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">vibhutiyoga<br />
The Yoga of The Divine Glories<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 11: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">विस्वरूपदर्शनयोगा</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">visvarupadarshanayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Vision of the Cosmic Form<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 12: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">भक्तियोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">bhaktiyoga<br />
The Yoga of Devotion<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 13: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">क्षेत्रक्षेत्रविभागयोगा</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">kshetrakshetravibhagayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Distinction between the Field and the Knower of the Field<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 14: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">गुणत्रयविभागयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">gunatrayavibhagayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Division of the Three Gunas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 15: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">पुरुषोत्तमयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">purushottamayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Supreme Spirit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 16: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">दैवासुरसम्पद्विभागयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">daivasurasampadvibhagayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Division between the Divine and the Demoniacal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 17: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">श्रद्धात्रयविभागयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">sraddhatrayavibhagayoga<br />
The Yoga of The Division of the Threefold Faith<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Chapter 18: </span><span lang="HI" style="font-family: Mangal, serif;">मोक्षसंन्यासयोग</span><span lang="HI"> - </span><span lang="EN-IN">mokshasannyasayoga<br />
The Yoga of Liberation by Renunciation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">3. Stories
from Puranas, Epics and Vedas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Story of Nala and Damayanti<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">King Nisadh of Ayodhya
had two sons Nala and Kuvara. Nala wanted to marry Damayanti, the beautiful
daughter of king Bhima. Damayanti did not know him, so Nala sent his swan to
her. The swan flew to Damayanti's palace and finding her alone in the garden,
sang praises of Nala. Meanwhile, King Bhima arranged swayamvara for his
daughter, where many princes gathered from whom Damayanti could chose her
husband. Damayanti chose Nala and they got married.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When King Nishadh died,
Nala became king. He conquered many other kingdoms and became famous. This made
his brother Kuvara jealous. He knew gambling was Nala's weakness. Kuvara
challenged Nala to a game of dice in which Nala lost everything. Kuvara became
the king and banished Nala from his kingdom. Nala went to the forest and
Damayanti, who loved him very much, followed him. As they walked in the forest,
Damayanti injured her feet. Nala did not want the delicate Damayanti to go
through hardships with him, so when she was sleeping he left her and went
ahead. Further into the forest, he found a snake on the top of a tree that had
caught fire from below. As he tried to bring it down, the snake bit him and
Nala turned dark and developed a hunchback. Nala asked the snake, "Why did
you bite me? I was trying to save your life." The snake said, "I am
your father Nisadh. The next twelve years will be full of difficulties for you.
I changed your appearance to protect you from your enemies. Whenever you want
to get back your original looks wear this ornament."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nala proceeded to
another kingdom. Meanwhile, when Damayanti woke up she found a note from Nala
asking her to go to her parents. As she moved ahead, she met a demon that
threatened to eat her. Impressed with her fearlessness he came into his real
form. He was actually a god, who told her that she would unite with her husband
after twelve years. Damayanti proceeded to Achalpura kingdom where she became
the queen's maid. Nala went to the kingdom of Samsumara and became a servant of
the king. Many years passed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One day, King Bhima's
men found Damayanti in Achalpura and brought her back to her father. King Bhima
tried to find Nala but failed, so he made a plan. He arranged the swayamvar of
Damayanti knowing that when Nala came to know about the second marriage of his
wife, he would certainly come to her. King Bhima was right. Nala came with his
master, the king of Samsumara. A day before the swayamvara Damayanti saw the
dark hunch back servant. She immediately recognised him. Nala also put on the
ornament given by his father and regained his original looks. But the
swayamvara had been arranged to Damayanti asked him to be present there. On the
day of swayamvara she put the garland around Nala's neck and they were united.
The twelve-year period was also over. With the help of King Bhima's army, Nala
won his kingdom back and again became the king of Ayodhya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nala and DamayantiOne
day, a monk visited Nala's palace and told him the reason why he had to undergo
the twelve-year exile. In their previous birth also Nala and Damayanti were
king and queen and they had thrown an innocent monk in prison. Their exile was
a punishment for their karma of a previous birth. Eventually, Nala and
Damayanti had a son Pushkara. After making him the king, they renounced the
world in search of spiritual enlightment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Story of Nachiketa and Yama<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vajasrawas, a famous
person during the ancient India, was performing a sacrifice in which the
performer had to give away all his wealth. It was a unique occasion. The place
was beautifully decorated. The rishis attended in great number and they were
chanting the mantras while offering to the holy fire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vajasrawas had a son
named Nachiketa, who was sixteen years old. At the end of the sacrifice,
Vajasrawas announces grandly that he is giving away all his possessions
including a large herd of cows to the teachers and saints, who had come from
all the places. Nachiketa was standing next to his father and observing his
father gifting away the cows one by one. Nachiketa was surprised to see his
father gifting away old cows which could not walk properly or give milk.
Nachiketa felt that by giving these cows his father would not get the desired
result of the sacrifice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nachiketa protests in a
loud whisper, <i>“You are not giving away
all your possessions! Dad, Am I not your possession?” </i>Nachiketa asked his
father to whom he would like to gift his son to. The father did not pay much
attention to his question. Nachiketa repeatedly asked the same question. His
father became angry and replied, <i>“I give
you to Yama, the God of death.”<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vajasrawas did not mean
what he said. He had uttered these words in anger. No father would like to send
their son away to the land of death. Nachiketa decided to obey the words of his
father by going to the abode of Yama. Vajasrawas asked his little son to stay
back. Nachiketa loved his father and did not like to disobey him. But at the
same time he was very firm. Folding his hands he told his father that their
ancestors never went back on their words and he would like to follow the same.
He wanted his father to follow the same tradition. Nachiketa knew that all the
things in this world are temporary and he was not afraid of death. He
understood that following the path of truth is the gateway to heaven.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vajasrawas was very sad
but gave him permission as a follower of truth. Nachiketa left for the abode of
Yama. On reaching there he found that Yama was not at home. For three days and
night the young boy waited without food, water and sleep at the doorstep of
Yama’s abode. Yama on his return, was deeply grieved to see that there was no
to welcome Nachiketa. Yama himself greeted him with due respect. For having
kept Nachiketa waiting for three days, Yama granted him three boons. Nachiketa
said, <i>“I seek the welfare of my father as
my first boon.” </i>He granted him happily. <i>“Sir
I desire to know how one could reach heaven where there is no sorrow, old age
or death”.</i>Nachiketa did not ask this second boon for himself but for the
sake of the people. He wanted everyone to learn this secret knowledge and free
themselves for the sufferings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yama was pleased with
the unselfishness of Nachiketa. Yama gave all the details of a particular
sacrifice, the performance of which would take one to heaven.As Nachiketa was
an intelligent and a sincere boy blessed with a spiritual knowledge, he could
understand all that was taught. Yama was pleased with him and in appreciation,
named that particular sacrifice after Nachiketa himself.Nachiketa asked, <i>“Respected Sir. What happens to a man after
death? I should like to know the truth from you. This I ask for the third
boon.”</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yama had not expected
this question from a young boy. He tried to divert him but Nachiketa was very
firm. He wanted to know the answer. Yama was very pleased but he tried to
divert the attention with lot of attractive things. Nachiketa declined all
these worldly pleasures. Yama was pleased with such a young truth-seeker who
had rejected the path of enjoyment and chose the path of goodness. Then Yama
taught him the knowledge of the Atman, realizing which man attains immortality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This forms the subject
matter of one of the Upanishads called <b>Katha
Upanishad</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Story of Ganga<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ganga is considered to
be the purest rivers in India. It is believed that anyone who bathes in the
Ganga would be purified of all the sins committed by him. In the Vamana Avatar
of Lord Vishnu, Bali the Asura King had promised to give Vamana – a dwarf three
steps of land to perform his meditation. Lord Vishnu who was the Vamana, then
assumed assumed the Trivikrama form, where he became huge so huge that measured
the earth in one step, the heaven in another. Bali then offered his head as the
third step. Lord Vishnu pressed Bali and pushed him to the netherworld. When
Lord Vishnu measured the heavens, Lord Brahma washed his feet with some water.
From that water a beautiful girl – Ganga was born in Lord Brahma's kamandalam.
Ganga was full of mischief and always pulled pranks on everyone. She danced and
sang beautifully and the Devas loved to come to listen to her and watch her
dance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Once many of the Devas
and the rishis had come to watch Ganga sing and dance. Ganga had just finished
dancing, when there was gust of wind. Sage Durvasa had come to watch the dance.
Like all rishis he was dressed in a simple manner. The gust of wind blew away
Sage Durvasa's clothing. All the Devas knowing Sage Durvasa's reputation as an
angry man, immediately turned their head away and tried not to laugh at him.
However Ganga was unable to control herself and burst out laughing looking at
the sage. Furious with Ganga, Sage Durvasa cursed her, 'Proud girl! You are
making fun of me instead of helping me! You do not deserve to live in the
heavens. You deserve to go to earth. Go and flow as a river on the earth where
you rightly belong!' Ganga was shocked when she heard the Sage's words.
Apologetically she ran to Sage Durvasa and fell at his feet. 'Please great
sage! I was proud! Please think of me as your daughter and forgive me...'<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sage Durvasa looked at
Ganga and softened himself. Filled with pity he spoke, 'My words cannot be
taken back, Ganga. But since you have asked I will grant you a boon that when
you flow on the earth you will be the purest river there. If anyone comes and
bathes in your waters, they would be purified of all their sins.' So saying
Sage Durvasa left, leaving Ganga unhappy and sorry as she had to leave her
friends and go to earth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meanwhile on earth, in
the kingdom of Ayodhya, there lived King Sagara. King Sagara had 60,000 sons.
King Sagara fought long and hard with all the Asuras surrounding his kingdom.
Subsequently after same years of battled, he was finally able to destroy the
Asuras. His kingdom was safe again. King Sagara ruled his people well and soon
the treasures of his kingdom were full and people were happy and content. King
Sagara decided that now was the time; he had to perform the 'AshwamedaYagna' to
declare his supremacy. In the AshwamedaYagna, a horse was let loose and went
all over the world. If the horse entered another kingdom, the other kings
either had to accept the supremacy of the king whose horse it was or fight the
other king. If King Sagar completed the AshwamedaYagna, he would become the undisputed
leader of the world. Looking at this, Lord Indra, the king of the Heavens grew
very jealous. He was very afraid that if King Sagara completed his Yagna, he
would become more powerful than Indra himself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Indra turned invisible
and went near the horse. He stole the horse and was about to carry it to
heaven, when he stopped thinking something...If I carry this horse to my
palace, King Sagara may find it and even challenge me to a fight. What if he
wins...? ...I will hide the horse in some other place so that my hand should
never be suspected. Thinking thus Indra hid the horse in the ashram of a sage
Kapila. Now Sage Kapila also had a reputation to have a very bad temper. King
Sagara sent his 60,000 sons to look for the horse. They finally found the horse
in the Ashram of Sage Kapila. Sage Kapila was deep in meditation when the sons
arrived there. The sons got angry thinking that Sage Kapila had kidnapped the
horse. ‘You call yourself a sage?' One of them said, 'You have stolen the horse
of the AshwamedhaYagna...?' The sons angrily yelled, 'Thief! This man is a
thief!' Sage Kapila was disturbed by the loud noise made by the sons of King
Sagara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Annoyed the sage opened
his eyes. When he opened his eyes, he heard sounds of 'Thief...thief...' By the
power of his penance, he realised that these people thought that he was a
thief. This enraged Sage Kapila so much that he used his powers and burnt all
of the sons of King Sagara – all the 60,000 of them. If the last rites of a
person are not done properly, it is believed that they do not reach heaven. So
the sons of King Sagara roamed as ghosts on earth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anshuman, the grandson
of King Sagara, when he heard this, ran to Sage Kapila. He fell on Sage
Kapila's feet. 'Great sage, please have mercy on us... My uncles..' He said
pointing at the ash around him, 'they are doomed...they will never go to
heaven...' Anshuman let out a tired sob, 'they will always roam the
earth...please...'Anshuman had tears in his eyes, 'my uncles do not deserve
this...Please great sage!' Looking at
the teary face of Anshuman, Sage Kapila felt sorry for him. He looked around at
the ashes and said, 'Son! There is a beautiful river called as Ganga in the
heavens. She is born from Vishnu. If she flows on your uncles, your brothers
would attain heaven...' However neither Anshuman, nor his son Dilip was
successful in bringing down Ganga from the heavens. Their penance did not bear
any fruit. Finally Dilip's son Bhageerath also started the penance for bringing
down Ganga to the earth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Finally pleased with
him, Lord Brahma appeared before him. Bhageerath fell on Lord Brahma's feet, <i>'Lord, there is nothing that you do not
know.. I am praying so that my ancestors are relieved from their curse and
ascend to the heavens. Please send your daughter to the earth...’ </i>Brahma had no objection torelease Ganga,
except that Bhageerath first had to worship Shiva, so that he would accept to
hold the force of Ganga in his hairs, lest she would overwhelm the entire
Earth. Thus Bhageerath undertook further penances to please Shiva. When Ganga
descended from the heavens, Shiva covered the sky with his hair locks, so that
not a drop wouldfall on Earth. When he
had fully captured Ganga, Shiva released a small part of Ganga’s force and told
her to followBhageerath. When Ganga flooded the ashram of saint Janu, he
swallowed her as a lesson in respect and onlyreleasedGanga out of pity for
Bhageerath. Wherever Ganga wouldflow in following Bhageerath, peoplecame in
large numbers to bath and obtain purification. Finally Ganga reached the ashram
of sage Kapila and freed the 60,000 sous from their ashes. Ganga continues to
purify the people that take bath in her and is herself purified by the saints
who will bath in her water. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Story of Sakuntala<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1026" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Shakuntala and Dushyanta" style='position:absolute;
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height:121pt;z-index:-1;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square;
mso-wrap-distance-left:9pt;mso-wrap-distance-top:0;mso-wrap-distance-right:9pt;
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o:title="Shakuntala and Dushyanta"/>
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img align="left" alt="Shakuntala and Dushyanta" height="161" hspace="12" src="file:///C:/Users/COMPUTER/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" width="263" /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shakuntala was a
beautiful maiden who was the adopted daughter of Sage Karnva. She lived with
him and her pet deer, in his </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hermitage
in the forest. One day, Dushyanta, the king of Hastinapur, came hunting in the
forest. He saw the beautiful deer and shot an arrow at it. Shakuntalsa found her
deer whimpering in pain and tried to comfort it. Shakuntala loved the animals
of the forest and her affection for the animal touched Dushyanta's heart and he
asked her to forgive him for his cruelty. She forgives him but asked him to
stay in the forest for a few days to tend the wounded deer. They fell in love
and King Dushyanta married Shakuntala and gave her a wedding ring his name on
it. The king then left for his king-dom after promising to return soon and take
Shakuntala back with him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One day , Sage Durwasa
came to Shakuntala's door. He repeatedly asked for water, but Shakuntala was
lost in thoughts of Dushyanta and paid no attention. The sage was insulted and
got very angry. Known for his temper, he cursed Shakuntala saying that the
person whom she was thinking about would forget her. When Shakuntala heard the
cause, she was frightened and begged the sage to forgive her. The sage said
that he could not the back the curse but he could change, if she showed
Dushyanta something he had given her then he will remember again about her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Due to the curse
Dushyanta forgot Shakuntala. After days of waiting for him to return,
Shakuntala decided to go to the capital to meet him. On the way, as Shakuntala
was crossing a river, her wedding ring fell into the water. A fish swallowed
the ring. When Shakuntala arrived at the palace, the king did not recognize
her. He asked her to prove her identity but Shakuntala didn't have the ring to
show him, as it was lost. She wept and told the king about the time he had spent
with her in the forest but he couldn't remember anything. Feeling sad she left
the palace.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ashamed to return to her
father's home, she started living alone in another part of the forest where she
gave birth to a son. She called him Bharata. Bharata was a brave boy. He grew
up among the animals of the forest and would play with wild animals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One day at the king's
palace, a fisherman brought him a ring. He told the king that he had found the
ring in the stomach of a fish that he had brought it straight to him. As soon
as the king saw the ring, the curse was broken and the king remembered
Shakuntala. He was very upset and hurried at once to her home in the forest to
look for her, but could not find her. In despair, he returned to his palace.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Few years passed. The
king again went hunting in the forest. There he was surprised to find a boy
playing with a lion cub. The boy fearlessly held open the mouth of the cub and
said, " O king of the jungle! Open your mouth wide, so I can count your
teeth." The king went up to the boy and asked him about his parents. The
little boy replied that he was the son of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala.
Dushyanta was very happy to have found Shakuntala and asked the boy to take him
to his mother. The family was united and Dushyanta took Shakuntala and Bharata
along with him to Hastinapur. Bharata grew up to become a great king.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-91574013987609410942017-05-05T23:48:00.001-07:002017-05-05T23:48:39.205-07:00Modern English Language and Usage - University of Madras: Revised Syllabus BA English [Sem 3]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Core Paper VI – Modern English Language and
Usage<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 1: Introduction <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The evolution of Standard English<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Evolution of Standard English<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To mention the subject of Standard
English is almost inevitably to invite criticism and controversy. What does one
mean by that term; is there in fact, such a thing; and is it desirable that
there should be? These questions have been discussed and debated <i>ad nauseam </i>so it is not proposed to go
into all the pros and cons once again, for no useful purpose would be served by
doing so. Those who disapprove of the idea of a ‘standard’ language point out
that such a language is theoretical rather than real; that each person
considers his own particular brand of English to be ‘standard’ and all
derivations from it to be either affectations or dialects; that though with
normally educated people, grammar, and to a large extent vocabulary also, is
uniform throughout the country, pronunciation varies from locality to locality,
and even amongst ‘good writers’ and others to whom one might reasonably turn
for guidance there is often disagreement. What one will regard as Slang or
Barbarism other will admit as part of vocabulary English. Words and phrases
which to the younger generation is forceful and expressive, to the older is
linguistic outrages. There are words over the pronunciation of which the ‘authorities’
themselves are perpetually wrangling. Amidst such diversity and confusion how
is it possible to fix a standard or to pretend that one does or even can exist?
Whom or what are we to take as our criterion of correctness? Any ruling that we
may lay down will be purely arbitrary; and in any case it is unscientific and
against all the natural genius of language to imagine that it can be fixed in
this way. A standard speech is an artificial speech, and therefore unstable and
without vitality. So argue the opponents of Standard English.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Granted all these objections; yet
they do not dispose of the question. Every one of them could be challenged and
contested, though it is not proposed to contest them there. The great fallacy
in them seems to be that ‘standard’ speech is being confused with
‘standardized’ speech. It is true that there is not, and never could be,
standardized English; but there is such a thing as Standard English. It is not
easy to define, but we all know what it is, we all realize that it exists, and
most of us can recognize it when we hear it, as we can detect deviations from
it whenever they occur. It is not rigid or inflexible. Within its framework
there is room for a certain amount of variation, and variety, and even of local
and personal colouring. Like everything that is typically English, it is
marked, within limits, by a spirit of tolerance and compromise and strict
rigidity is alien to its nature. It accepts alike the Southern long <i>a</i> and the Northern short <i>a</i> in such words as bath, past, plaster;
though it prefers the accent on the first syllable in <i>controversy</i> it will recognize it as permissible to place it on the
second if we so desire, (this pronunciation is coming increasingly to be used
even by educated people); and although it regards <i>It is I</i> as being the grammatically correct form, it does not
absolutely rule out <i>It is me</i>. We may
use any or all of these variations and alternatives and still speak Standard
English; but there are certain things which we must ot say. The Cockney <i>line</i> (for lane) is definitely not
Standard English – just as definitely as the Yorkshireman’s and Lancashireman’s
pronunciation of <i>stud</i> as though it
were the past tense of the verb <i>stand is</i>
not. It will not recognize <i>childer </i>as
the plural of <i>child</i>, though
historically it is more correct than <i>children</i>,
and we cannot say <i>Them books are mine</i>
(as there is a tendency to do amongst uneducated folk), or <i>He was sat by the fire</i>, as a number of otherwise well spoken people
do in the North and the Midlands. In short, we all know that mere is a
generally accepted form of English that every educated person aims at speaking,
from whatever part of the country and from whatever social class he comes: that
though it does not impose strict uniformity, so that distinctive regional
characteristics are not altogether obliterated, it does stand above the various
regional dialects, and that people who speak this are intelligible to each
other as they would not be if they spoke in their local variants. This is what
we mean y Standard English. It is the linguistic currency of the realm, the
Queen’s English.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> So much, then, by way of explanation
of what is meant by Standard English. Next we must say something on why it
arose: for it is not, as some folks are apt to imagine, a mere arbitrary
invention of a class or a clique that wish to impose their own particular way
or speaking upon others. Though as we shall see later, there are very good
utilitarian reasons why a standard speech should be cultivated, it has come
about mainly as a natural product of certain historical, cultural and social
factors. We have already noticed in Chapter III how, as far back as the
Anglo-Saxon period, the dialect of Wessex gradually became the pre-eminent one
and attained to something of the dignity of a literary dialect, chiefly through
the accident that Wessex had a cultured and scholarly king in Alfred the Great,
who encouraged letters and was himself both author and translator. In the
Middle English period Chaucer and a number of contemporary writers gave the
East Midland dialect a literary prestige, and the fact that Caxton used the
same dialect for his early printed works established it more firmly still. The
invention of printing, in fact, was one of the most influential factors making
for the emergence of Standard English. It could not, of course, influence
pronunciation but it did stabilize, within limits, spelling, grammar, syntax
and vocabulary. Dialects was still widely used in speech and even in
correspondence, but they tended increasingly to be regarded as an inferior sort
of English. The particular dialect that was the ‘official’ dialect of printing
attained to a respectability and a prestige that the others did not enjoy, and
as printed works circulated far and wide throughout the country, and even
abroad, it soon spread beyond its original bounds and became a national tongue
while others were only regional ones.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Now it so happened that the East
Midland dialect was also that spoken, with slight modifications, in London, and
the political consolidation of England, with the centralisation of government
and of national life in London during the time of the Tudor monarchs, not only
meant that the need would be increasingly felt for a ‘national’ language by a
people that was becoming more and more conscious of its national unity, but it
also helped to assure a supremacy for the English of the capital. The influence
of the Authorised Version of the Bible (1611) must also be taken into
consideration, and, about a century and a half later, Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary,
which performed a double service, viz. (i) it reduced a rather chaotic spelling
system to something like order and virtually ‘fixed’ English spelling from that
time onwards; and (ii) by distinguishing between reputable and ‘low’ words
(sometimes rather arbitrarily and capriciously, it is true) it established the
notion of a cleavage between what was ‘good English’ and what was not. Amongst
later influences must be counted the increased social contract which modern
methods of travel have brought in their train and the spread of reading and of
education amongst all classes, with a consequent elevation of Standard English
at the expense of regional varieties, advent of wireless and television (at
least in their early days). And finally we must not discount the part played by
the more utilitarian and that, in these democratic days, if one would ‘get on
in the word’ one must take care to speak good English. <i>Savoir dire</i> (to coin a phrase) is just as important as <i>savoir faire</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Professor H. C. Wyld, writing some
years ago in his <i>Short History of English</i>,
defined Standard English as that which was ‘spoken within certain social
boundaries, with an extraordinary degree of uniformity, all over the country’:
and it is true that, in all probability, the distinction between those who
spoke Standard English and those who did not was originally a social one. To
some extent it still is so today. Certainly the old and more rigid social
barriers are breaking down, so that in a strict sense Wyld’s definition is no
longer valid. The son or daughter of a working man may, and very often does,
speak as good English as a peer of the realm, so that Standard English is no
longer the monopoly or distinguishing mark of one social class – unless,
indeed, we modify the significance of the term and claim that the typist or
shop assistant who speaks the same kind of English as the peeress is, <i>ipso facto</i>, in the same class, and that
possibly the incentive to speaking ‘good English’ is a mild so harmless form of
snobbery and social ambition – a desire to gain admittance to that ever
broadening circle. But however we may view the matter, certainly the negative
aspect of Wyld’s definition still holds good: the speaking of non-standard
English definitely places a person outside the social class in question. In
other words, Standard English carries with it and confers on its speaker a
certain social prestige; any other brand of English does the opposite.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Another authority of the English
language, Professor Daniel Jones, is more explicit. What we call Standard
English, he says, ‘is that most usually heard in everyday speech in the
families of Southern England whose men folk have been educated at the great
public school.’ It will be noticed that he states more definitely than does
Wyld what the social class is, and he also adds the qualification as to
locality; but again the same objections would seem to apply. Jones, however,
though his definitions may be rather faulty when judged by the distribution of
Standard English at the present day, has hit upon the two most important facts
about its origin; viz, it is based on (a) the English of Southern England, and
(b) the language of the cultured and educated classes of the region. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Why the dialect of the South rather
than that of the North should have gained this pre-eminence has been discussed
already; viz, for courtly reasons, reasons of government, trade and commerce,
foreign travel, etc. As early as 1589 we find George Puttenham, in his <i>Art of English Poesie</i> advising poets not
to take the terms of the Northern men, nor any speech used beyond, the river of
Trent. ‘But ye shall take the usual speech of the Court and that of London and
the shires lying about London within sixty miles, and not much above…… Herein
we are already ruled by the English dictionaries and other books written by
learned men, and therefore it needed none other direction in that behalf.’
Puttenham, it is true, was speaking for the written literary language rather
than for the spoken word, but where literature lead, the speech of the polite
society followed and from polite society it slowly but gradually percolated
through the lower strata. It was, of course, influenced in subtle ways by
political, religious and social development, and each age has made its own
contribution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> One feels
that the debt we owe to the Commonwealth period in the matter of the evolution
of a standard language has never been sufficiently recognised. By the fact that
it sets its face against courtly affectation and cultivated a dignified mode of
speech it helped to mould the character of the language for the next two
hundred years; and by the emphasis that it placed upon the reading and study of
the Bible it did a great deal to combat the earlier tendency towards Latinism
and to ensure a predominantly Saxon basis for the mother tongue. If in many
respects the Renaissance enriched the language, it also the provided the
possibility for the emergence of an artificial pseudo-classical style. The
development of this was very largely checked by the Puritans. Those Puritans
represented the predecessors of the very families whose speech Jones had in
mind when he laid down the definition of Standard English quoted above: the
upper middle class, who for two whole centuries were the backbone of England
and the most important class socially as well as politically. As their
religious and moral outlook influenced English life and thought right up to the
end of Queen Victoria’s reign, so did the character of their speech influence
the future developments of the language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> England
has never had an Academy of Letters, as France has, but towards the end of the
seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century many writers felt that
there was a need for one so that some standard of language and vocabulary could
be fixed by an authoritative body. In this age, the age of the Merry Monarch,
of Queen Anne and the first two Georges, with their galaxy of courtiers,
politicians and literati, polite society and the world of letters were even
more conscious of the distinctiveness of the London and southern dialects than
their predecessors had been, and one of the most frequent subjects of ridicule
in a number of plays and minor novels of the day was the Yorkshire squire, with
his uncouth manners and his barbarous diction. It was felt that a very valuable
purpose would be defining once for all what was to be considered good English,
and giving a rule on what words were admissible into polite language and what
were to be regarded as slang. When Johnson undertook the compilation of his Dictionary
he had something of this object in view, but he quickly abandoned it, becoming
convinced that such a project was not feasible, and soon he opposed the
established of any kind of Academy as being alien to the spirit of English
liberty. Nevertheless, the dictionaries of the eighteenth century did attempt
to lay down an approximate standard in that they not only distinguished between
what words might be used by those who wished to be considered ‘correct’ and
what might not, but many of them marked accent and vowel quantities in order to
guide to pronunciation, about which, apparently, there was still a great deal
of doubt of doubt and disagreement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> The
contribution of the eighteenth century to the development of Standard English,
then, is beyond question; but for all that, what it achieved it achieved in
spite of itself. The attitude it adopted was one which was fundamentally
unsound and unscientific. For the eighteenth century, and especially the first
half of it, was the great classical age of English letters. It laid down the
rules to which literature was expected to conform, and it sought to do the same
for language. It believed that the dictionary and the grammar book should be
the authorities on ‘correctness’ and that usage should be made to conform to
precept. Writers strove to establish for England a style and diction worthy of
their country and its traditions as the style and diction for Latin were worthy
of the traditions of Rome. But the great mistake they made was in assuming that
the classical tongues of antiquity, by which they set much store, had remained
fixed and static. The eighteenth century was unfortunately deficient in
philological knowledge, or such an assumption could never have been made. It
believed that Latin and Greek owed their vitality and the immortality of their
literature to the fact that they had been standardised, or, as Pope would have
put it, ‘methodised’, and the desire to do the same for the language and
literature of their own country was the main motive behind the attempts of a
number of authors to establish a ‘standard’ for English.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> The
next hundred years was the age of individualism and <i>laissez faire</i>, of the doctrines of evolution and the survival of
the fittest, and in these circumstances we should hardly expect the idea of an
academy to gain much sympathy. Matthew Arnold, who in many ways had affinities
with the mid-eighteenth century rather than with his own generation, flirted
with it, but in an essay on <i>The Literary
Influence of Academies </i>(published in his Essays in Criticism, Series I) he
finally rejected it. “An Academy quite like the French Academy, a sovereign
organ of the highest literary opinion….we shall hardly have, and we ought not
to wish to have it”, he wrote: but he was in favour of what he termed “influential
centres of correct information”, an ideal which to some extent has since been
realised.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> The
nineteenth century, too, was a great period of English expansion and
Empire-building, as well as of commercial development, and these
characteristics had a twofold effect upon the language, an effect which was at
once broadening and restrictive. The vocabulary was considerably enlarged
through foreign contacts, while the development of science and social theory
led to new recourse being had to the classical tongues for the confirmation of
words of an academic and technical nature. The abstract element in English
became more marked: this was the age when so many of our -<i>isms</i> were born. But side by side with this, and partly as a
reaction from it, there also arose a movement for the purification of the
language by the exclusion of foreign tongues and their replacement by words of
native origin wherever possible. No doubt the national consciousness which
usually accompanies a nascent imperialism, and of which we have recently seen
instances in other countries, partly accounts for this development; and partly
too, it is explained by the renewed reverence for the Bible and ‘Bible English’
which was so marked a characteristic of the period. To the Victorians the Bible
became not only a book of devotionbut a text-book for scholars in the day and
evening schools. Many a writer like Ruskin was steeped and saturated in its
style and its phraseology, and people were taught that it was of value not only
for its religious and moral precepts but also because it was written in the
best, the simplest, the purest and the most euphonious English of all time. Nor
must we overlook the influence of the Germano-phile tendency which grew up just
before the middle of the century through the study of the German philosophers
and the writings of Carlyle, and finally through the Queen’s marriage to a
German prince. True, the classical tradition still dominated the educational
system from the grammar schools upwards, but all these factors were
counteracting influences.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> The
movement toward a ‘purer’ English is seen most markedly in Tennyson, the
representative poet of the age. Eschewing words of foreign origin as far as he
could, he attempted to give currency to some of the ‘good old English words
that had long since become archaic. One thinks of <i>brand</i> (sword), <i>boon,
purblind, spate, knave</i> (in its original sense of <i>boy</i>), <i>deem, seer, thrall</i>,
etc. If one excludes the words of a religious significance – <i>chapel, cross, chancel</i> – which are of
necessity derived from Norman-French, the first dozen lines of <i>Morte d’Arthur</i>consist almost entirely of
English or at least Germanic words, and the statistics given on page 36-37 show
that on an average about eighty-eight per cent of Tennyson’s diction is of native
origin. William Morris, too, with his cult of medievalism and his dislike of
innovations in language as in social life, was another of the purists. He went
even further than Tennyson and suggested that such well-established words as <i>omnibus</i> and <i>dictionary</i> should be replaced by <i>folkwain</i> and <i>word-book. <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> Though
this purist movement may possibly have had a sobering influence on the
development of the language in so far as it tended to preserve the existing
predominance of native elements and to check the unnecessary recourse to
foreign terms or to the gowth of a markedly foreign style, few of the actual
revivals were permanent. Morris’s drastic reforms were foredoomed to failure,
and almost all his coinages proved abortive. Tennyson’s gained a limited currency
for a while, but were still regarded as poetic eccentricities and never really
absorbed into the spoken tongue or even into the diction of written prose. A
few words like <i>handbook</i> (in place of
the older <i>manual</i>) <i>foreword</i> (instead of <i>preface</i>), which both belong to this
period, have survived, but even so they have not ousted the alternative terms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;">Now to any language are four distinct aspects, viz.,
(i) vocabulary, (ii) spelling, (iii) grammar, and (iv) pronunciation. For
obvious reasons the earliest move towards standardisation took place in the
first three of these. It is only comparatively recently that pronunciation has
become more or less uniform. Of course, there always have been, and there
presumably always will be, two tendencies at work: on the one hand the
conservative, which is averse to change and looks askance at innovation as two
great latitude as being destructive of all that is best and most characteristic
in the speech that has been handed down to us by the past; on the other the
progressive, which holds that by welcoming innovation we are not only enlarging
the bounds and the possibilities of the language, but are actually preserving
the spirit and tradition of the past, since the English tongue has only become
what it is today because our ancestors adopted no narrow attitude but were
ready to accept and naturalise foreign elements and to tolerate new tendencies
in style, grammar and pronunciation. With this clash of opinion is bound up the
whole question of the relation between grammar and usage. It is not proposed to
debate it here; suffice it to say that the present age seems to have adopted an
attitude of compromise, which is, perhaps, the common sense one. While
admitting that ultimately precept is determined by practice, grammar by usage,
and not vice versa, it takes up a position which is still fundamentally
conservative, though conservative in the enlightened sense. It will not give
way to passing whims and fancies or tolerate arbitrary departures from what has
been long accepted as ‘correct’, when it is clear that a particular innovation
is not merely a passing whim or eccentricity, but has come to stay, it will
recognise it as legitimate English. Frequently there is an intermediate stage,
when the old and new are regarded as equally acceptable. Hence the alternative
spellings judgement and judgment and the alternative pronunciations of
controversy, respite, etc. at the present time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-IN;"> Of
recent years there has been a reaction against the idea of Standard English,
perhaps as part of the reaction against authority in general, perhaps on the
principle that ‘Jack is as good as his master’. Then, as a further reaction
against this, there arose a an interest in ‘U’ and ‘non-U’ English. (‘U’ stands
for upper-class, or the aristocracy, and ‘non-U’ for non-upper-class’, i.e. the
rest of us). Note-paper is non-U: the U term is writing paper. Mirror is non-U;
the U speaker uses looking glass (except for a driving mirror and a shaving
mirror). A U speaker will refer to a lounge in a hotel or a club, but not in a
private house. Coverlet is non-U; its U equivalent is counterpane. Only non-U
speakers <i>take</i> a bath, a U speaker <i>has </i>a bath. Radio is non-U, the U
equivalent is wireless. Interest in the subject was first aroused in 1954, when
Professor Alan Ross, of the University of Birmingham, contributed an article on
it to the Finnish philological journal <i>Neuphilologische
Mitteilungen. </i>A shortened version of this article later appeared in
Encounter. Miss Nancy Mitford joined in the discussion, and for a while there
was a good deal of argument and controversy. The original article was meant as
a social study, not as an indicator of what was linguistically ‘correct’ and
what ‘incorrect’, though there was at the time tendency to interpret it that
way. Today we scarcely hear it discussed, though it has been the terms of ‘U’
and ‘non-U’ for things other than language. Perhaps the reason against the idea
of Standard English will be similarly short-lived, though if it is, the
Standard English of fifty years hence will not be in all respects that of
today.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 2: Language and Regional Variation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Standard Language<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Accent and Dialect<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dialectology<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Regional Dialects<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Style, Slang and Jargon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">THE STANDARD LANGUAGE<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definition<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dictionary definitions of “standard (language)” are limited while
linguists apply wildly different approaches when describing this language
variety.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
Standard Language a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> particular </span><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/variety" title="variety"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">variety</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> of
a </span><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/language" title="language"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">language</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> that
is regarded as the most correct, widely accepted, or prestigious way of writing
or speaking the language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">It is a variety of a language selected and
promoted by some </span><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/authority" title="authority"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">authority</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. (<i>sociolinguistics)<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">It is a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
particular </span><a href="http://www.yourdictionary.com/variety"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">variety</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> of
a </span><a href="http://www.yourdictionary.com/language"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">language</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> that
is regarded as the most correct way of writing or speaking the language.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Explanation <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Standard
variety is usually the nation-wide, non-regional form of language used for
public communication and particularly for writing. In many countries, the
standard variety is based in some dialect, often the one spoken in the capital
city. This variety is then adopted by the upper class and everyone who doesn’t
want to sound regional.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Standard
variety of a language is used in the following contexts. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A
recognized standard of pronunciation;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mention
of the language in legal documents (for example the constitution of a country);<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The use
of the language throughout public life (for example in a country’s parliament)
and its formal instruction in schools;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A body
of literary texts;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Formal
instruction of and research into the language and its literature in
institutions of higher education;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">An
institution promoting the use of the language and its formal instruction in
educational institutions abroad; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Translations
of key religious texts such as the Bible or the Koran.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Standard languages arise when a certain
dialect begins to be used in written form, normally throughout a broader area
than that of the dialect itself. The ways in which this language is used—e.g.,
in administrative matters, literature, and economic life—lead to the
minimization of linguistic variation. The social prestige attached to the
speech of the richest, most powerful, and most highly educated members of a
society transforms their language into a model for others; it also contributes
to the elimination of deviating linguistic forms. Dictionaries and grammars
help to stabilize linguistic norms, as do the activity of scholarly
institutions and, sometimes, governmental intervention. The base dialect for a
country’s standard language is very often the original dialect of the capital
and its environs—in France, Paris; in England, London; in Russia, Moscow. Or
the base may be a strong economic and cultural centre—in </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Italy</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, Florence. Or the language may be a combination
of several regional dialects, as are German and </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Polish-language"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Polish</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Even a standard language that was originally
based on one local dialect changes, however, as elements of other dialects
infiltrate into it over the years. The actual development in any one linguistic
area depends on historical events. In the United States, where there is no
clearly dominant political or cultural centre—such as London or Paris—and where
the territory is enormous, the so-called standard language shows perceptible
regional variations in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. All standard
languages are in any case spoken in a variety of accents, though sometimes one
particular accent (e.g., Received Pronunciation in Britain) may be most closely
associated with the standard because of its shared social or educational
origins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In most developed countries, the majority of
the population has an active (speaking and writing) or at least passive
(understanding) command of the standard language. Very often the rural
population, and not uncommonly the lower social strata of the urban population
as well, are in reality bidialectal. They speak their maternal dialect at home
and with friends and acquaintances in casual contacts, and they use the
standard language in more formal situations. Even the educated urban population
in some regions uses the so-called </span><a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/colloquial"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">colloquial</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> language informally. The use of this
type of language is supported by psychological factors, such as feelings of
solidarity with a certain region and pride in its traditions or the relaxed
mood connected with informal behaviour.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ACCENT AND DIALECT<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definitions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">This distinction between accent and dialect is not that important for a
layperson. Unless a person is a linguist, the difference between these
two words is pretty abstract. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Accent</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Accent, or pronunciation, is a special element of a dialect. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">An <b><i>accent</i></b> is the way
that particular person or group of people<i> sound</i>. It’s the way
somebody pronounces words, the musicality of their speech, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">When a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">standard language</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and pronunciation are defined by a
group, an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accent_(linguistics)"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">accent</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>may be any pronunciation that deviates
from that standard.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Dialect:
a way of pronouncing words that shows which country or area you are form<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">He speaks English with a faint
French accent.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 18.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">I find it difficult to understand
Sarah. She speaks with a broad Scottish accent.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN"> </span><strong><span lang="EN-IN">Dialect</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dialect is a type of language that is derived
from a primary language. A <b><i>dialect</i></b> describes both a
person’s accent <i>and</i> the grammatical features of the way that
person talks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">dialect</span></a><em><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">is a variety of language differing in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">vocabulary</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">grammar</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">as well as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pronunciation</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. Dialects are usually spoken by a group
united by geography or class.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Accent: a form
of language that is spoken in a certain area<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Even though my English is pretty
good, I can’t understand the Yorkshire dialect.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">There are many different dialects
in China.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Explanation <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Accent and dialect are two different words
that are commonly heard in linguistics. These two words refer to a certain way
of speaking a language and are often confused, resulting in being used
interchangeably; however both the words have different meanings. In
linguistics, an accent depends mostly on pronunciation of specific words or
phrases. An accent is the manner in which different people pronounce words
differently from each other. For example, the word ‘route’ is pronounced as
‘roote’ in the US, while as ‘raut’ in the UK.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">In
linguistics, an accent depends mostly on pronunciation of specific words or
phrases. An accent is the manner in which different people pronounce words
differently from each other. Accents differ depending on a particular
individual, location, or nation. The accent can also help identify the
locality, region, the socio-economic statues, the ethnicity, caste and/or
social class of the speaker. All these factors affect the accent of a person.
Diversity also plays a huge part in shaping different accents. Accents usually
differ in the quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress,
and prosody. An accent may be associated with the region in which its speakers
reside (a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">geographical</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>accent), the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-economic_status" title="Socio-economic status"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">socio-economic status</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of its speakers, their<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ethnicity</span></a>,
their<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste" title="Caste"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">caste</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">social class</span></a>,
their<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language" title="First language"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">first language</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(when the language in which the accent
is heard is not their native language), and so on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Though certain accents, such as American, British or
Australian, stand out, almost everyone speaks with a certain kind of accent and
accents vary person to person. As accent is just a way of pronouncing or
putting stress on certain vowels and consonants, almost every has an accent that
differs from another person. Accents are developed as children learn to speak
and pronounce words. As human beings spread to the different parts of the
world, speaking the same language in different ways forms different types of
accents. Accents also refer to the little diacritical marks that are placed on
certain words in languages such as Spanish, French, etc. These marks change the
pronunciation of the word and it lets people know where to put extra stress
when saying the word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Accents are usually considered as a subset of
dialects and are gaining popularity due to the increase in international
Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) companies. Due to the outsourcing, a lot of
people look for people with an American accent to work at such places.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN">Dialect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">The term dialect is derived from the ancient Greek word
‘diálektos’ meaning "discourse". A dialect is a variation in the
language itself and not only in the pronunciation. Dialect is a type of
language that is derived from a primary language. For example, Sanskrit being a
primary language, Hindi, Marathi and Gujarati are all considered as dialects of
that particular language. It is used to refer to the language that deviates
from the original language. The second language differs with regards to
grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, etc. In certain cases, a mix of two
languages is also considered as a dialect, such as Spanglish is considered as a
dialect of Spanish and English.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Sometimes, dialects are used to refer to regional
languages that are spoken in a particular place or region. Linguists believe
that dialects are usually impure in nature to some extent, due to being
borrowed mostly from the parent language. Dialects also include other speech
varieties such as jargons, slang, patois, pidgins and argots. There is no set
standard in order to distinguish a dialect from a particular language and in
many cases linguists refer to dialects as languages, claiming that there is no
difference between the two. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DIALECTOLOGY<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The study of
language in society is called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>sociolinguistics. The real basis for
much of sociolinguistics is that the differences in language among members of a
speech community or between different regions speaking different varieties of
the same language are often meaningful for society. Language variants spoken by
entire groups of people are referred to as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dialects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dialectology</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">is a branch of sociolinguistics that studies the systematic variants of
a language. The term dialect was first coined in 1577 from the Latin<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dialectus,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>way of speaking</i>. Dialectal
variation is present in most language areas and often has important social
implications.<span style="background: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definition<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dialectology
is the systematic study of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/language-linguistics-and-literary-terms/language-and-linguistics/dialect#1O29DIALECT"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">dialects</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. That is the study of variant features
within a language, their history, differences of form and meaning,
interrelationships, distribution, and, more broadly, their spoken as distinct
from their literary forms. The discipline recognizes all variations within the
bounds of any given language; it classifies and interprets them according to
historical origins, principles of development, characteristic features, areal
distribution, and social correlates. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-IN">Explanation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">The
scientific study of dialects dates from the mid-19c, when philologists using
data preserved in texts began to work out the historical or diachronic
development of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/language-linguistics-and-literary-terms/language-and-linguistics/indo-0"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Indo-European</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>languages. Their interest was
etymological and systematic. Scientific phonetics and the principle that sound
change was not erratic but followed discoverable rules or laws, were a basic
part of the growth of dialectology. Living dialects were seen to furnish a huge
treasury of living data on phonology, lexicology, and other features of
language that written texts could not furnish. The linguist's task was to
gather, analyse, and interpret this living body of language. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Dialectology
is pursued through a number of methods; the American linguist W. Nelson Francis
(<i>Dialectology</i>, 1983) describes the prevailing methods as traditional,
structural, and generative.<br />
In<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b><i>traditional dialectology</i></b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>the
collection of data is the primary requirement. This entails fieldwork, the more
detailed and massive the better, within the limits of practicability, and its
presentation in the form of dictionaries, grammars, atlases, and monographs.
This method Francis calls ‘item-centered’, emphasizing the individual datum and
paying little attention to underlying system. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b><i>structural
dialectology</i></b>, the investigator seeks to find both the structure or
system by which a dialect holds together or achieves synchronic identity and
how it is changed by the introduction of any new feature. Since any change in
the system affects every feature of it, it becomes in effect a different
system, whose parts are, however, diachronically connected. There is a
paradoxical element here which is partly due to difficulties of definition. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b><i>generative
dialectology</i></b>, the investigator holds that the language exists within
the speaker as a competence which is never fully realized in performance. This
competence, lying beneath actual language as it is produced (and as it is
recorded by traditional dialectologists), works by a series of rules which
transform it into actual speech. Thus, it is the dialectologist's task to find
a basic system whose rules produce as economically as possible the surface
structure of actual dialect. The complexities or variations within a language
(its dialectal variants) may thus be traced back to a putative source form from
which in the course of time they could by speciation have developed. However,
without the mass of data which traditional dialectologists have furnished,
theoretical systems could not have been either proposed or refined.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">To study dialects we must
first decide how to determine when two similar forms of a language are merely
dialects of the same language and when are they separate languages. The
difference between dialect and language is not clear-cut, but rather depends on
at least three factors, which often contradict one another.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">1.
The first criterion is purely linguistic,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>mutual
intelligibility. Can the speakers of two different language forms readily
understand one another? If they cannot, then the two forms would normally
be considered separate languages--at least by linguists. If language
differences cause only minimal problems in communication, there is a tendency
to call the variants dialects of a single language: such is the case with
British, Australian, American English and the English of India--all dialects of
English. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">2.
The second criterion is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>cultural,
and takes into account the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>opinion
of the speakers: do the speakers themselves think of their form of
language as a variety of a more standard form of speech? Is there a
neutral or standarized form of the language that speakers look to as the
norm. This is certainly true of the varieties of English spoken in the
United States. Most speakers of American English would also consider
American English and the English spoken in Britain--which subcribes to a
slightly different standard--to be variants of a single language. (There
are differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, punctuation, etc. between
standard American English and British English.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">3. A final criterion in
differentiating language from dialect involves a language's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><u>political status</u>, a factor that
is external to the form of the language and sometimes even at variance with the
culture of the speakers. Do the political authorities in a country
consider two language forms to be separate languages or dialects of a single
language? Extremely different, non-mutually intelligible language forms may be
called dialects simply because they are spoken within a single political entity
and it behooves the rulers of that entity to consider them as such: this
was the case with Ukrainian and Russian in the days of the Russian Empire,
where Ukrainian (called Little Russian) was considered a substandard variety of
Russian (called Great Russian). This could also be said to be the case with the
so-called dialects of Chinese in the People's Republic of China.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">On
the other hand, language forms that are quite mutually intelligible can be
considered separate languages also for purely political reasons. Such is
the case with Serbian and Croatian in the former Yugoslavia.
Linguistically, these two language forms are more similar than the English
spoken in Texas and New York; linguists, in fact, usually called them both by
the name Serbo-Croatian. However, for entirely political reasons the
Serbs and the Croats have deliberately invented separate literary standards to
render their language more divergent than it really is. If two language
variants are mutually intelligible and subscribe to the same literary standard,
they are dialects of the same language rather than separate languages. If two
language variants are not mutually intelligible, they are different languages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">REGIONAL DIALECTS<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In addition to geography, other factors may lead to
dialectal change. One is ethnicity, the cultural, religious and racial
differences that separate groups of people. The dialect of an ethnic
group within a larger speech community is often marked by certain unique
features.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Definition <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">A<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>regional dialect</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><i> </i></span>is a distinct form of a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-language-1691218"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">language</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>spoken in a particular geographical
area. It is also known as a <em>regiolect</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><i> </i></span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>topolect</em>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especiallya variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which itexists: <i>Cockney is a dialect of English.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-IN">A variety of language that with other varieties constitutes a single language of which no single variety isstandard: <i>the dialects of Ancient Greek.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Explanation <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">As opposed
to a national dialect, a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><strong><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-weight: normal;">regional dialect</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">is spoken in one particular area of a
country. In the USA, regional dialects include Appalachian, New Jersey and
Southern English, and in Britain, Cockney, Liverpool English and 'Geordie'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">If
the form of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/speech-linguistics-1692121"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">speech</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>transmitted from a parent to a child
is a distinct regional dialect, that dialect is said to be the child's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/vernacular-language-1692593"><em><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">vernacular</span></em></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Some
differences in U.S.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><strong><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-weight: normal;">regional dialects</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">may be traced to the dialects spoken by
colonial settlers from England. Those from southern England spoke one dialect
and those from the north spoke another. In addition, the colonists who
maintained close contact with England reflected the changes occurring in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/british-english-bre-1689039"><span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">British English</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">, while earlier forms were preserved
among Americans who spread westward and broke communication with the Atlantic
coast. The study of regional dialects has produced<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>dialect atlases</em>, with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>dialect maps</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>showing the areas where specific
dialect characteristics occur in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/speech-linguistics-1692121"><span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">speech</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">of the region. A
boundary line called an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/isogloss-linguistics-term-1691085"><i><span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">isogloss</span></i></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">delineates each area.
<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">In
contrast to a regional dialect, a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/social-dialect-sociolect-1692109"><span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">social dialect</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">is a variety of a language spoken by a particular group
based on social characteristics other than geography."<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN"> Another factor in the development of dialects
is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>social differentiation. In England the upper classes speak
different dialects than the lower classes. Usually, dialects developed on
the basis of several interacting factors. The classes of Britain, for
example, originate in large part from historical differences in
ethnicity. Even today, by and large, Britain's lower classes trace their
ancestry to the original Celtic inhabitants of the British Isles who were
defeated by the Anglo-Saxons. Many upper class British families trace
their ancestry back to the Norman French who conquered England in 1066. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">STYLE, SLANG AND JARGON<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">STYLE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Style is language variation
which reflects changes in situational factors, such as addressee, setting, task
or topic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Explanation <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It is a choice of a particular way of saying or writing something as
there is often more than one way of conveying the same message. The style
changes from formal to informal, as the situation becomes more urgent. Other
terms that are used to identify different context-dependent styles include
frozen, casual and intimate. Style choices affect both grammar and vocabulary.
Words that are used only in certain styles are often identified as such in
dictionaries. Styles include literary, old-fashioned, humorous and
medical.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The choice is determined by the following:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Specific contextual factors, such as the degree
of formality that is required. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A particular effect that the person wants to achieve.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Addressee as an Influence on Style<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Age of addressee<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> = People generally
talk to the very young and to the very old. Forexample: Baby-talk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Social background of addressee<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> = People talk
differently to the higher class and to thelower class. For example: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The pronunciation of
newsreaders on different radio station<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Context, Style and Class<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (Some Examples)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• Formal contexts and social roles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• Different style within an interview<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• Colloquial style or the vernacular<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">• The interaction of social class and style<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stylistics is the study of style, or the way language is used to create
particular effects, especially those associated with the expressive and
literary uses of language.<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SLANG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Slangs are the words and phrases which are highly colloquial and
informal in type, occurring more often in speech than in print. It is consists
either of newly crafted words or existing words employed in special sense. It
is making abstract concrete and memorable, by employing imagery.- are very
informal English and maybe understood only within a certain group of people.
Words often have short shelf life, fading away after a generation. Some slang
words have endured and entered the general lexicon, including bogus, geek, mob,
hubbuband. Slang exist alongside jargon and argot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reasons for Using Slang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For fun <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As an exercise either in wit and ingenuity on in humor <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To be different; to be novel <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To be secret or not understood
by those around. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 115%;">The use of slang plays a major role in the maintenance
of the gang’s group </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">identity.
It separates the in-group, who use the slang, from the rest of society who do
not and are not part of the gang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Types of slang <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Abbreviations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Etc- etcetera (and so on)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Vid-video<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Po-po= police<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Acronyms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">TLC-Tender Loving Care<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">BFF- Best Friends Forever<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">JPEG- Joint Photographic Experts Group<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shorthands<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">GR8=great<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">24/7= 24 hours a day, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">7 days a week4. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbols<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">$$$= a lot of money<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Idiomatic expressions/Phrasal verbs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pain on the neck= somebody who is annoying<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Knock out= somebody who is extremely stunning or gorgeous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lost the plot= to become crazy or mentally unstable<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To goof up= to make a serious mistake<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To make waves= to cause trouble<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Screw around= to waste time<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: -0.75pt; line-height: 115%;">To catch some Z’s= to get some</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-IN">JARGON<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Definition <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The
French word is believed to have been derived from the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language" title="Latin language"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Latin</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>word<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>gaggire</i>,
meaning "to chatter", which was used to describe<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech" title="Speech"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">speech</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that the listener did not understand.
Middle English also has the verb jargounen meaning "to chatter",
which comes from the French word.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon#cite_note-5"><sup><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[5]</span></sup></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The word may also come from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Old French</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>jargon</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>meaning "chatter of birds". <span style="letter-spacing: -.75pt;">American Dictionary defines jargon as “the
language, especially the vocabulary, peculiar to aparticular trade, profession,
or group; medical jargon”.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Explanation
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Jargon</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">is a type of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">language</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that is used in a particular<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_(language_use)" title="Context (language use)"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">context</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and may not be well understood outside
of it. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradesman" title="Tradesman"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">trade</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession" title="Profession"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">profession</span></a>, or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_(academia)" title="Discipline (academia)"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">academic field</span></a>), but any<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" title="Ingroups and outgroups"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">in group</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>can have jargon. The main trait that
distinguishes jargon from the rest of a language is special<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">vocabulary</span></a>—including
some<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word" title="Word"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">words</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>specific to it and, often, narrower<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_sense" title="Word sense"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">senses</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of words that outgroups would tend to
take in a broader sense. Jargon is thus "the technical terminology or
characteristic idiom of a special activity or group".<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Most jargon is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>technical terminology,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>involving<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>terms of art<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>industry terms, with particular meaning within a specific
industry. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jargon is
a language that is characterized by uncommon or pretentious vocabulary and
convoluted syntax and is often vague in meaning. Unlike most slang, academic
jargon is typically not imaginative or picturesque. Too much of it would make
one feeling stifled, even oppressed. Like some slang, jargon might keep
outsiders out, serving to exclude. Nonetheless, jargon has its place, enabling
members of a group to communicate about their interests. The terms jargon
and argot are often used almost interchangeably to refer to
“obscure or secret language” or “language of a particular occupational group”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">KINDS OF JARGONS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Medical
Jargons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BP - Medical shorthand for blood pressure<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">FX - Medical jargon meaning bone fracture<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">JT - A joint<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NPO - A patient should not take anything by
mouth<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">IM - Intramuscular<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Business
Jargons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Bang for the buck - A term that
means, to get the most for your money<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Due diligence - Putting effort into research
before making a business decision<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sweat equity - Getting a stake in the
business instead of pay<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The 9-to-5 - Business jargon meaning a
standard work day<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Chief cook and bottle-washer - A person who
holds many responsibilities<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3. Police
Jargons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Suspect - A person whom the police think may
have committed a crime<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Code Eight - Term that means officer needs
help immediately<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Code Eleven - A code that means the
individual is at the scene of the crime<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">FTP - The failure of an individual to pay a
fine<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4. Military
Jargons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">TD - Temporary duty<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> AWOL - Absent without leave<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">SQDN - A squadron<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5. Political
Jargons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Left wing - Political jargon for
liberal, progressive viewpoint<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Right wing - Jargon meaning a conservative
viewpoint<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Getting on a soapbox - Making a speech in
public<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">POTUS - President of the United States<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">SCOTUS - Supreme Court of the United States<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6. Internet
Jargons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> BTW - By the way<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CYA - See you around<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">FAQ - Frequently asked questions<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">HTH - Hope this helps<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">MOTD - Message of the day<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">YMMV - Your mileage may vary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">IIRC - If I remember correctly<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">LOL - Laugh out loud<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BFF - Best friends forever<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">TTYL - Talk to you later<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 3: Areas of Difficulty in the Usage of
English Language for the II Language Users<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Parts
of Speech<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A part of speech is a category of words
which have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same
word part of speech generally display similar behavior in terms of syntax—they
play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences—and sometimes
in terms of morphology, in that they undergo inflection for similar properties.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">noun<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">verb<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">adjective<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">adverb<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pronoun<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">preposition<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">conjunction<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">interjection<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">article
or (more recently) determiner.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Noun</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(names)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A word or lexical item
denoting any abstract (abstract noun: e.g. <i>home</i>) or concrete entity
(concrete noun: e.g. <i>house</i>); a person (<i>police officer</i>, <i>Michael</i>),
place (<i>coastline</i>, <i>London</i>), thing (<i>necktie</i>, <i>television</i>),
idea (<i>happiness</i>), or quality (<i>bravery</i>). Nouns can also be
classified as count nouns or non-count nouns; some can belong to either
category. The most common part of the speech; they are called naming words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pronoun </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(replaces)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A substitute for a noun or
noun phrase (<i>them, he</i>). Pronouns make sentences shorter and clearer
since they replace nouns.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adjective</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(describes, limits)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A modifier of a noun or
pronoun (<i>big, brave</i>). Adjectives make the meaning of another word (noun)
more precise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Verb </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(states
action or being)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A word denoting an action (<i>walk</i>),
occurrence (<i>happen</i>), or state of being (<i>be</i>). Without a verb a
group of words cannot be a clause or sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adverb</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(describes, limits)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A modifier of an adjective,
verb, or other adverb (<i>very, quite</i>). Adverbs makes writing more precise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Preposition </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(relates)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A word that relates words
to each other in a phrase or sentence and aids in syntactic context (<i>in, of</i>).
Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun with another
word in the sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Conjunction </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(connects)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A syntactic connector;
links words, phrases, or clauses (<i>and, but</i>). Conjunctions connect words
or group of words<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Interjection</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(expresses feelings and emotions)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">An emotional greeting or
exclamation (<i>Huzzah, Alas</i>). Interjections express strong feelings and
emotions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(describes, limits)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A grammatical marker of
definiteness (<i>the</i>) or indefiniteness (<i>a, an</i>). The article is not
always listed among the parts of speech. It is considered by some grammarians
to be a type of adjective or sometimes the term 'determiner' (a broader class)
is used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Voice<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Active voice</span></b><span lang="EN-IN"> is a grammatical voice
common in many of the world's languages. It is the unmarked voice for clauses
featuring a transitive verb in nominative–accusative languages, including
English and most other Indo-European languages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Active voice is used in a clause whose
subject expresses the main verb's agent. That is, the subject does the verb's
designated action. A clause whose agent is marked as grammatical subject is
called an active clause. In contrast, a clause in which the subject has the
role of patient or theme is named a passive clause, and its verb is expressed
in passive voice. Many languages have both an active and a passive voice; this
allows for greater flexibility in sentence construction, as either the semantic
agent or patient may take the <i>subject</i> syntactic role.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Example: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The dog bit the postal carrier.
(active voice)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The postal carrier was bitten by the
dog. (passive voice)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Passive voice</span></b><span lang="EN-IN"> is a grammatical voice
common in many languages. In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical
subject expresses the <i>theme</i> or <i>patient</i> of the main verb – that
is, the person or thing that undergoes the action or has its state changed.
This contrasts with active voice, in which the subject has the agent role. For
example, in the passive sentence "The tree was pulled down", the subject
(<i>the tree</i>) denotes the patient rather than the agent of the action. In
contrast, the sentences "Someone pulled down the tree" and "The
tree is down" are active sentences.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Typically, in passive clauses, what is
usually expressed by the object (or sometimes another argument) of the verb is
now expressed by the subject, while what is usually expressed by the subject is
either deleted, or is indicated by some adjunct of the clause. Thus, turning an
active verb into a passive verb is a valence-decreasing process
("detransitivizing process"), because it turns transitive verbs into
intransitive verbs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">Tense<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In grammar, <b>tense</b> is a category
that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of
specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Basic tenses found in many languages
include the past, present, and future. Some languages have only two distinct
tenses, such as past and </span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonpast" title="Nonpast"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nonpast</span></a>, or
future and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonfuture_tense" title="Nonfuture tense"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nonfuture</span></a>. There are also tenseless languages,
like Chinese, which is traditionally thought to have no tense at all, although
recent research suggests that it may possess a future and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonfuture_tense" title="Nonfuture tense"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nonfuture</span></a>
system, which is typical of Sino-Tibetan languages. On the other hand, some
languages make finer tense distinctions, such as remote vs. recent past, or
near vs. remote future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Tenses generally express time relative
to the moment of speaking. In some contexts, however, their meaning may be
relativized to a point in the past or future which is established in the
discourse (the moment being spoken about). This is called <i>relative</i> (as
opposed to <i>absolute</i>) tense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There are <b>four </b>present tense forms in English:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<thead>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tense<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Form<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Present
simple:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
work<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Present
continuous:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
am working<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Present
perfect:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
have worked<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Present
perfect continuous:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
have been working<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
We use these forms:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to
talk about the <b>present</b>:<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He <b>works </b>at McDonald’s. He <b>has worked </b>there
for three months now.<br />
He <b>is working </b>at McDonald’s. He <b>has been working </b>there for three
months now.<br />
London <b>is </b>the capital of Britain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to
talk about the <b>future</b>:<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The next train <b>leaves </b>this evening at 1700 hours.<br />
I’ll phone you when I <b>get </b>home.<br />
He<b>’s meeting</b> Peter in town this afternoon.<br />
I’ll come home as soon as I <b>have finished </b>work.<br />
You will be tired out after you <b>have been working </b>all night.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">We
can use the present tenses to talk about the <b>past</b>...<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Modals and Auxiliaries<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Modals and auxiliary verbs
in English<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Modals
<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Auxiliary
<i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Auxiliary
<i>have</i> <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Be</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (auxiliary and main verb) <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="modals"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modals<o:p></o:p></span></b></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Historically, the modals of
English, which are listed in (1), derive from a special class of verbs in Germanic
(the ancestor of English and the other Germanic languages). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(1) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">can, could, may, might,
must, shall, should, will, would <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modals have always differed
from ordinary verbs in Germanic, and in the course of the history of English,
they have diverged from verbs even further, to the point where they now belong
to a syntactic category of their own. Because many modals have meanings that
are often expressed in other languages by verbal inflections, this syntactic
category is called I(nflection). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In what follows, we review
the ways that modals differ from verbs in English, both morphologically (what
forms they exhibit) and syntactically (how they combine in sentences). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Range
of forms<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modals and verbs differ in
the range of forms that they exhibit. English verbs appear in a number of
distinct forms (see </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Finiteness), whereas modals have a single,
invariant form. Modals never end in <i>-s</i>, even in sentences with third
person singular subjects. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
{ <i>can-s, may-s</i> } play the piano. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
{ <i>can, may</i> } play the piano. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="notes-past"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modals also lack productive
past tense forms. It is true that <i>could,</i> <i>might,</i> <i>should,</i>
and <i>would</i> originated in Germanic as past tense forms of <i>can,</i> <i>may,</i>
<i>shall,</i> and <i>will.</i> But today, only <i>could</i> can serve as the
past tense of <i>can</i>, and that only in certain contexts.</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="4" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Example
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Potential
paraphrase <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="4" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nowadays,
you <i>can</i> get one for a dollar. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">...
it <i>is</i> possible to get one ... <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Back
then, you <i>could</i> get one for a nickel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">...
it <i>was</i> possible to get one ... <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(4)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">We
<i>can</i> go there tomorrow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
<i>is</i> possible for us to go there ... <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">We
<i>could</i> go there tomorrow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=/=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
<i>was</i> possible for us to go there ... <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(5)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You
<i>may</i> ask the boss. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You
<i>are</i> allowed to ask the boss. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You
<i>might</i> ask the boss. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=/=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You
<i>were</i> allowed to ask the boss. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(6)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shall</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
I pick up some bread? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Is</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
it a good idea for me to pick up some bread? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Should</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
I pick up some bread? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">=/=
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Was</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
it a good idea for me to pick up some bread? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="4" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Finally, modals lack present and past participles; the
missing forms must be paraphrased. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(7)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">{
<i>Cann-ing, may-ing</i> } play the piano pleases her greatly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">{
<i>Being able, being allowed</i> } to play the piano pleases her greatly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(8)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
has { <i>cann-ed, may-ed</i> } play the piano. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
has { <i>been able, been allowed</i> } to play the piano. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nonfinite contexts<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A further difference between modals and verbs is that
modals, unlike verbs, can't occur in nonfinite contexts (for instance, in <i>to</i>
infinitive clauses or after another modals). Once again, the missing forms must
be paraphrased. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(9)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In
<i>to</i> infinitive clause, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">modal
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
wants <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to
can</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> speak Spanish. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">paraphrase
of modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
wants <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to
be able</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> to speak Spanish. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">verb
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
wants <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to
speak</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Spanish. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(10)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">After
(another) modal, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">modal
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
must <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">can</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
speak Spanish. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">paraphrase
of modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
must <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">be
able</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> to speak Spanish. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">verb
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
must <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">speak</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
Spanish. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Do</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
support contexts<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="do-support"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The inability of modals to
appear in nonfinite contexts gives rise to three further differences between
verbs and modals, all of them manifestations of an important phenomenon in the
grammar of English called <b><i>do</i> support.</b> </span></a><a href="" name="emphasis"></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Emphasis.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> In the simplest case, <i>do</i> support
affects affirmative sentences containing a finite verb whose truth is being
emphasized. It involves replacing the finite verb by the verb's bare form and
adding a form of </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">auxiliary <i>do</i> to the sentence in the
appropriate tense (either present or past tense). This form of <i>do</i> then receives
emphatic stress, as indicated by underlining in (11). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(11)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unemphatic
(without <i>do</i> support) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
dances; she sang. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Emphatic
(with <i>do</i> support) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does dance; she did sing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">By contrast, emphasizing the truth of a sentence that
contains a modal is achieved by simply stressing the modal. <i>Do</i> support
with modals is ungrammatical. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(12)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Emphasis
without <i>do</i> support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
can dance; she will sing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Emphasis
with <i>do</i> support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does can dance; she does will sing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="negation"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Negation.</span></b></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <i>Do</i> support with verbs occurs not only
in emphatic contexts, but in two further syntactic contexts: negation and </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
formation. In both of these cases, the form of <i>do</i> that is added to the
affirmative or declarative sentence doesn't necessarily receive emphatic stress
(although it can). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In English, sentences containing modals are negated by
simply adding <i>not</i> (or its contracted form <i>n't</i>) after the modal. <i>Do</i>
support is ungrammatical. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(13)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Negation
without <i>do</i> support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
{ may, must, should, will, would } not dance. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Negation
with <i>do</i> support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does not { may, must, should, will, would } dance. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sentences without modals, on the other hand, require <i>do</i>
support in English. As in the case of emphasis, the verb appears in its bare
form, and an appropriately tensed form of the auxiliary verb <i>do</i> is added
to the sentence, followed by negation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(14)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Negation
with <i>do</i> support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
{ does, did } not dance. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Negation
without <i>do</i> support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
not { dances, danced }. <br />
He { dances, danced } not. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="questions"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question formation.</span></b></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The final difference between modals and
verbs concerns question formation. If a declarative sentence contains a modal,
the corresponding question is formed by inverting the modal with the subject. <i>Do</i>
support is ungrammatical. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(15) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question without <i>do</i>
support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">{ Can, may, must, should,
will, would } he dance? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question with <i>do</i>
support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">* <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does he { can, may, must,
should, will, would } dance? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Again,
however, in a sentence without a modal, question formation requires <i>do</i>
support. That is, it is an appropriately tensed form of <i>do,</i> rather than
the verb itself, that inverts with the subject. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(16) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question with <i>do</i>
support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">{ Does, Did } he dance? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question without <i>do</i>
support <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">* <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">{ Dances, Danced } he? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="do"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary <i>do</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This section summarizes the
properties of auxiliary <i>do,</i> introduced </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">in
the previous section in connection with <i>do</i> support. Auxiliary <i>do</i>
belongs to the same syntactic category as the modals---namely, I(nflection),
because it shares their properties with one exception (in contrast to modals,
it has an <i>-s</i> form). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The goal of the previous section was to establish the
special status of modals, and we used the facts of <i>do</i> support as a
criterion for distinguishing modals from verbs. In this section, we consider
some of the same facts, but with a different focus. Rather than focusing on the
distinctive properties of modals, we focus on the morphological and syntactic
properties of auxiliary <i>do</i> itself. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Like all English auxiliaries (the others are <i>be</i>
and <i>have</i>), auxiliary <i>do</i> is homonymous with an ordinary verb - in
this case, main verb <i>do.</i> The examples that follow explicitly contrast
main verb <i>do</i> with auxiliary <i>do.</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Range of forms<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As
just mentioned, the only difference between auxiliary <i>do</i> and the modals
is that it has an <i>-s</i> form. In this respect, it patterns with ordinary
verbs, including its main verb counterpart. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(17)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modal
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
<i>can</i> dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
{ <i>can, * can-s </i>} dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="3" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(18)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
<i>do</i> dance the polka; I <i>do</i> not dance the polka; <i>do</i> you
dance the polka? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
<i>do-es</i> dance the polka; he <i>do-es</i> not dance the polka; <i>do-es</i>
he dance the polka? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(19)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
<i>do</i> the dishes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
<i>do-es</i> the dishes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(20)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Other
verb <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
<i>dance</i> the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
<i>dance-s</i> the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nonfinite contexts<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In all other respects, auxiliary <i>do</i> behaves like a
modal rather than like an ordinary verb. For instance, it is ungrammatical as a
<i>to</i> infinitive, after modals, or as a gerund. Notice the clear contrast
between the judgments for auxiliary <i>do</i> in (22) and main verb <i>do</i>
in (23). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(21)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modal,
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">in
<i>to</i> infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
want to <i>can</i> dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
(another) modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
will <i>can</i> dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Their
<i>canning</i> dance the polka while blindfolded is unusual. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(22)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>do,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">in
<i>to</i> infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
claim to <i>do</i> dance the polka. <br />
Intended meaning: They claim that they do dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
will <i>do</i> dance the polka. <br />
Intended meaning: It will be the case they do dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Their
<i>doing</i> dance the polka while blindfolded was unwise. <br />
Intended meaning: That they did dance the polka while blindfolded was unwise.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="5" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(23)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>do,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">in
<i>to</i> infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
want to <i>do</i> the dishes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
will <i>do</i> the dishes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Their
<i>doing</i> the dishes was considerate. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(24)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Other
verb, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">in
<i>to</i> infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
want to <i>dance</i> the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
will <i>dance</i> the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Their
<i>dancing</i> the polka while blindfolded is unwise. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Do</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
support contexts<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary <i>do</i> also behaves like a modal in <i>do</i>
support contexts. Double instances of auxiliary <i>do</i> are ruled out, just
like double modals are (see (10a)). Once again, auxiliary <i>do</i> and main
verb <i>do</i> differ sharply, as shown in (26) and (27). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(25)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Modal,
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does <i>can</i> dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
doesn't <i>can</i> dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
he <i>can</i> dance the polka? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(26)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>do</i>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does <i>do</i> dance the polka. <br />
Intended meaning: It is the case that he does dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
doesn't <i>do</i> dance the polka. <br />
Intended meaning: It isn't the case that he does dance the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Doesn't
he <i>do</i> dance the polka? <br />
Intended meaning: Isn't it the case that he does dance the polka? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td colspan="4" style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(27)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>do</i>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does <i>do</i> the dishes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
doesn't <i>do</i> the dishes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
he <i>do</i> the dishes? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(28)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Other
verb, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does <i>dance</i> the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
doesn't <i>dance</i> the polka. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
he <i>dance</i> the polka? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>have</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Let's now turn to auxiliary
<i>have,</i> which combines with past participles (<i>-en</i> forms) to form
the <b>perfect</b> forms of verbs. Auxiliary <i>have</i> behaves like a V with
respect to its morphology and its occurrence in nonfinite contexts, but like an
I with respect to <i>do</i> support. Specifically, auxiliary <i>have,</i> like
auxiliary <i>do,</i> shares all the morphological properties of its main verb
counterpart. In addition, it can appear in nonfinite contexts (unlike auxiliary
<i>do</i>). With respect to <i>do</i> support, however, auxiliary <i>have</i>
differs from its main verb counterpart and patterns together with the modals
and auxiliary <i>do.</i> The complex behavior of auxiliary <i>have</i> can be
captured by saying that it moves from V to I in the derivation of a sentence (</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(29) and (30) show that auxiliary <i>have,</i> like auxiliary <i>do</i> (cf.
(18)), behaves morphologically like its main verb counterpart in having an <i>-s</i>
form. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(29)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>have</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
<i>have</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
<i>ha-s</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(30)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>have</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
<i>have</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
<i>ha-s</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary <i>have</i> differs from auxiliary <i>do</i>
(cf. (22)) and resembles main verb <i>have</i> in being able to appear in
nonfinite contexts. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(31)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>have,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
claim to <i>have</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
must <i>have</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
do not regret <i>having</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(32)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>have, </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
claim to <i>have</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
must <i>have</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
do not regret <i>having</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On the other hand, just like auxiliary <i>do</i> (cf.
(26)) and in contrast to main verb <i>have,</i> auxiliary <i>have</i> is ruled
out in <i>do</i> support contexts. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(33)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>have,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does <i>have</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
doesn't <i>have</i> adopted two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
he <i>have</i> adopted two cats? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(34)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>have, </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
does <i>have</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
doesn't <i>have</i> two cats. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
he <i>have</i> two cats? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: justify;">
<a href="" name="be"><b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Be</span></i></b></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (auxiliary and main verb)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The examples in (35)-(40)
illustrate the behavior of auxiliary <i>be,</i> which is used to form the
progressive (<i>is coming, was dancing</i>) and the passive (<i>is abandoned,
was sold</i>) in English. Auxiliary <i>be</i> behaves just like auxiliary <i>have.</i>
In particular, it has an <i>-s</i> form (irregular though that form is), and it
can appear in nonfinite contexts, but it is excluded from <i>do</i> support
contexts. As a result, auxiliary <i>be</i> can be treated just like auxiliary <i>have</i>:
as belonging to the syntactic category V, but moving from V to I in the course
of a derivation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main verb <i>be</i> differs
from main verb <i>have</i> and main verb <i>do</i> in behaving exactly like
auxiliary <i>be.</i> In other words, main verb <i>be</i> is the only main verb
in modern English that moves from V to I. </span><a href="" name="notes-gerund"></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(35) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary <i>be,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">non-third person <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I <i>am</i> learning
Spanish; I <i>am</i> invited to the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">third person <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She <i>i-s</i> learning
Spanish; she <i>i-s</i> invited to the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(36) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main verb <i>be,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">non-third person <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I <i>am</i> happy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">third person <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She <i>i-s</i> happy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(37) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary <i>be,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They claim to <i>be</i>
learning Spanish; they claim to <i>be</i> invited to the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They must <i>be</i>
learning Spanish; they must <i>be</i> invited to the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="bottom"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="bottom">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="bottom"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="bottom">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gerund <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="bottom"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="bottom">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I don't regret <i>being</i>
invited to the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(38)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>be</i>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
infinitive <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
claim to <i>be</i> happy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
modal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
must <i>be</i> happy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(39)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Auxiliary
<i>be,</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
does <i>be</i> learning Spanish; she does <i>be</i> invited to the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
doesn't <i>be</i> learning Spanish; she doesn't <i>be</i> invited to the
ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
she <i>be</i> learning Spanish? Does she <i>be</i> invited to the ceremony? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(40)
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
verb <i>be</i>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">after
emphatic <i>do</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
does <i>be</i> happy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">b.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">negative
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
doesn't <i>be</i> happy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">c.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">*
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Does
she <i>be</i> happy? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Direct
and Indirect Speech<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What is Direct Speech?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">l</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Consider the following sentence:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Rama said : ' A fine lesson will be
taught to the wicked Ravana.'<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The given sentence is in direct speech.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Here the exact words of the speaker have been put
within quotation marks.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There is a colon after 'said'.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The first word inside the quotation marks starts
with a capital letter.</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What is an indirect speech then?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">•</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
Let's consider the indirect speech of
the sentence under consideration ,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Rama said (that) a fine lesson would be
taught to the wicked Ravana. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
In Indirect speech<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">•</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The quotation marks as well as the colon
after said are removed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">•</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The conjunction “that” introduces to us the
words (not exact) spoken by the speaker. </span><span class="datetext"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">However the latest
trend is to drop 'that'.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
RULE ONE:-If in direct speech you find
say/says or will say then DO NOT CHANGE THE TENSE that you can find within the
quotation marks<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">EXAMPLES-RULE ONE<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
I say ' I am elated”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
I say I am elated<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
He says,” I was a fool then”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
He says he was a fool then.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
She says,” I will be more experienced
then”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
She says she will be more
experienced then<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
I will say,” He loves cricket”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
I will say he loves cricket<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
She will say,” He was in the land of
nod then”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
She will say he was in the land
of nod then.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
They will say,” We will achieve
greatness”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
They will say we will achieve
greatness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">RULE TWO<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">•</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
If in direct speech the words within
the quotation marks talk of a universal truth or habitual action then RULE
ONE is followed or in other words the tense inside the quotation marks is
not changed at all.. For e.g.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">•</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
teacher said,” The sun rises in the east”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The teacher
said the sun rises in the east<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">RULE THREE<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If there is 'said' in the direct speech then
the tense of the words inside quotation marks is changed to the past
tense. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I said,” I am suffering from a fit of ennui”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> I
said I was suffering from a fit of ennui.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Kinds
of Sentences<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There are mainly four types of sentences:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Declarative<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Imperative<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Interrogative<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Exclamatory<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The declarative sentence merely makes a statement. The
imperative sentence expresses a command, order or request. The interrogative
sentence asks a question and the exclamatory sentence expresses a sudden
emotion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Read the following sentences and state their kind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1. Please leave your footwear outside.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2. Will you wait here?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3. Where have you been all this while?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4. We will not tolerate this.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5. I am your friend.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6. My sister lives in Mexico.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">7. What did you do then?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">8. Do be a bit more careful.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">9. Never speak to me like that again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">10. Always remember what I told you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">11. The ball rolled slowly into the goal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">QUESTION TAGS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question
tags are short questions at the end of statements.</span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> A<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>question tag<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>tag question<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(also known
as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>tail question) is a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">grammatical</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">structure in which a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)#Classification_by_purpose" title="Sentence (linguistics)"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">declarative</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">statement or an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">imperative</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">is turned into a question by
adding an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">interrogative</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fragment (the “tag").
For example, in the sentence "You're John, aren't you?” the statement
"You're John" is turned into a question by the tag "aren't
you". The term "question tag" is generally preferred by British
grammarians, while their American counterparts prefer "tag question".</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
are mainly used in speech when we want to:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">confirm that something is true or not</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, or<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to encourage a reply</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> from the person we are speaking to.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question tags are formed with the auxiliary
or modal verb from the statement and the appropriate subject.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A <b>positive</b> statement
is followed by a <b>negative</b> question tag.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jack <b>is</b> from Spain, <b>isn't </b>he?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mary <b>can</b> speak English, <b>can't</b> she?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A <b>negative</b> statement
is followed by a <b>positive</b> question tag.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They <b>aren't </b>funny,<b> are </b>they?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He<b> shouldn't</b> say things like that,<b> should </b>he?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When
the verb in the main sentence is in the </span><a href="http://www.grammar.cl/Present/Simple.htm" title="Present Simple Tense"><i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">present simple</span></i></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> we
form the question tag with </span><a href="http://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htm" title="Do and Does in English"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">do / does</span></b></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">You <i>play</i><b> </b>the guitar, <b>don't </b>you?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alison <i>likes</i><b> </b>tennis,<b> doesn't </b>she?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If
the verb is in the <i>past simple</i> we use <b>did</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They <i>went</i> to the cinema, <b>didn't</b> they?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">She <i>studied</i> in New Zealand, <b>didn't</b> she?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When
the statement contains a word with a <b>negative</b> meaning, the
question tag needs to be <b>positive</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He <b>hardly ever</b> speaks,<b> does </b>he?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They <b>rarely</b> eat in restaurants, <b>do</b> they?<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 4.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Intonation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When
we are sure of the answer and we are simply encouraging a response, the
intonation in the question tag goes down:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This is your car, <b>isn't it</b>?<br />
(Your voice goes down when you say isn't it.)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 9.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When
we are not sure and want to check information, the intonation in the question
tag goes up:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He is from France, <b>isn't he</b>?<br />
(Your voice goes up when you say isn't he.)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit-4: Language for specific Speech events <u><o:p></o:p></u></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Drafting an invitation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Drafting the minutes of a meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Addressing a gathering (welcome address)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Proposing vote of thanks<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<b>Drafting Invitations.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
Invitations or invites are the sweetest kinds of letters. We write invitations
on a number of occasions – formal and informal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In fact informal invitations have no limits.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You can invite your friends, relatives, or anyone whom
you can address “Hi” and “hello” anyway you like but when it comes to formal
invitations, you have to restrict your freedom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo27; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You cannot invite your local MP or a film-star, “Hi Bro,
there is a party we gonna throw on Monday. Do come to inaugurate the same. See
Yaa. Bye! Take care!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Invitation media<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You can write/design/draft an invitation on multiple
platforms:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Design in a card and enclose in an envelope (mostly
formal)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Write on plain paper or letter pad and enclose in an
envelope (mostly formal)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Draft as an email and send directly (mostly formal)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Design and hand over in person (both)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">CBSE Concern<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo29; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formal Printed Invitations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formal replies – Accepting and Declining<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Informal Invitations – Letter format<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">INFORMAL INVITATIONS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Informal invitations are drafted for the following
occasions:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On the occasion of a birthday<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On the occasion of your parents’ wedding anniversary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On the occasion of your sister’s engagement/ring
ceremony/wedding<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On the occasion of a party that throw to welcome your old
friends home<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Format<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo31; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Begin with sender’s address, date, receiver’s address<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo31; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Salutation of your choice<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo31; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Write the content loosely but be precise. Invitation is
shorter than a letter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo31; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Do not fail to provide specific details of the function,
venue, date.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo31; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Make the invitee feel the warmth of the invitation so use
words from the core of heart.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo31; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You can even draw a route map.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Styling<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo32; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 13.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dear Charley, you will be thrilled to know that Marcy has
finally agreed to pursue her further studies in London…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo32; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 13.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Charley, I am most obliged to you throughout my life for
my getting selected for the Madagascar team…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo32; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 13.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dear Diana, it is with welling excitement that I invite
you to be part of my sister’s engagement with Spencer…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Example | Informal
Invitation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">12/C, Palace Road<br />
New York – 11<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">16 March 2100<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dear Frank,<br />
Emily and I are throwing a party on the occasion our parents’ 39th wedding
anniversary that falls on this Saturday, the 25th of this month at
our residence. It will be a pleasure if you would join us with family for the
celebrations. Hope to see you soon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yours sincerely<br />
Peter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Example | Reply to Informal
Invitation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">33, Park Avenue<br />
New York – 12<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">17 March 2100<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dear Peter and Emily,<br />
Thank you for the kind invitation to your parents’ wedding anniversary. It is a
pleasure to think of them and being able to spend time with them is always
memorable. Unfortunately for us, my sons are in India for a month’s visit and
we are joining them on the 24th. We regret our inability to decline the
invitation. We extend our prayers for Mr. and Mrs. Cooks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yours sincerely<br />
Frank<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">FORMAL INVITATIONS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formal Invitations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo33; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Inviting a dignitary to preside over a function<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo33; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Inviting a celebrity to inaugurate your new showroom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Format<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formal Invitation are generally sent on occasions such as
grand weddings, anniversaries and mass functions involving a big crowd of
invitees.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formal Invitations are sent to individuals for a less
grand function such as a formal wedding anniversary, formal alumni meeting,
etc. In this kind of invitation, we write, “Mr. Arvind Malhotra cordially seeks
the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Singh, on the auspicious occasion of….”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Write as if it is written by a third person. It is not,
“I and my wife invite you to our son’s wedding” but, “Mr. and Mrs. Malhotra
cordially solicit the presence of Mr. and Mrs….”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Do not use I, we, and you and their other forms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Follow the letter format with from address and date but
no need to write salutation such as, dear, sir, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Begin with the host’s name, such as, “Mr. Peter is glad
to invite Mr. Alexander…”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For invitations inviting dignitaries as judges or chief
guests, it is just a single paragraph.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No I, We, You. Only Third Persons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 4.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Write inside a box.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
Next – Sample – Functions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Principal, staff and students of<br />
<b>Townvale Public School<br />
</b>cordially invite your presence on the occasion of the<b> </b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Golden Jubilee Celebrations</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">of the school<br />
on 21st December, 2012, Monday, from 05.00 pm to 09.00 pm at<br />
<i>King’s Stadium, Model Town.<b> </b></i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Shah Rukh Khan<br />
</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">will be our proud guest
of honor for the day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kindly be seated before 4.50. This invitation admits only
three people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A detailed rout map is overleaf.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">RSVP<br />
Charles Frost Asst. Principal 077-22-13-5654<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Next
– Sample – Wedding Invitation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mrs. and Mr. Jain<br />
cordially solicit your benign presence<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">on the auspicious occasion of the marriage of their son<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ROHIT JAIN</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
with<br />
<b>SUJATHA JAIN<br />
</b>(D/o Mrs. and Mr. Lala Jain)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">on the 23rd of April, 2012, Monday, evening at<br />
Rajouri Park Hotel, Rajouri Garden, Delhi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">— <b>PROGRAM —<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Baraat : 8 30<br />
Grand Dinner : 11:30<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">RSVP 011-223344<br />
Best Compliments from Raghav, Raju and friends</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Best Complements from<br />
Mahesh, Peter and Pinku<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Next –
Sample – Inviting dignitaries<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Question<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Your school, Lord Buddha School, Gaya, is celebrating its
300th Anniversary in the month of December. The program is expected to last a
week. To this, invite Mr. A. K. Antony, Honorable Prime Minister to precede
over the occasion of the closing day programs. You are Ms. Sukanya, Principal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Answer <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lord Buddha School<br />
Gaya – 112233<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">12 March 2017<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Principal of Lord Buddha School, Gaya, cordially invites
Mr. A. K. Antony, Honorable Prime Minister, to the closing day celebrations of
the school’s 300th Anniversary in the month of December, preferably in the
second half of the month. The entire school hopes that the honorable Prime
Minister would definitely keep a part of his very precious time for this noble
cause and appreciate an early reply from his office.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Most sincerely<br />
Shankar Dev Rana<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Next – Sample – Reply –
Accepting<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Prime Minister’s Office<br />
New Delhi – 110011<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">16 March 2017<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. A K Antony feels privileged to be invited to
inaugurate the closing day celebrations of the 300th Anniversary of Lord Buddha
School, Gaya. With cheers for the programs, he accepts the invitation and
confirms his availability from 2 pm to 5 pm, Saturday, 12 March.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sincerely<br />
Ms. Urmila Devi (Private Secretary)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.8pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.8pt; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Next – Sample – Reply –
Declining<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Prime Minister’s Office<br />
New Delhi – 110011<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">16 March 2017<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. A K Antony, the honorable Prime Minister feels
privileged to be invited to inaugurate the closing day celebrations of the
300th Anniversary of Lord Buddha School, Gaya. He would have been equally glad
to accept the invitation but he deeply regrets his unavailability due to a
foreign program in the same month. However, he wishes all success for the
program.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sincerely<br />
Ms. Urmila Devi (Private Secretary)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drafting
the Minutes of meetings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lots of organisations,
groups, and businesses have meetings where a record needs to be kept of the
proceedings and decisions made. Somebody in each case needs to write the
minutes of meetings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo35; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">an
informal meeting of hobby club members<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo35; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">the
annual general meeting of a charity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo35; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a
formal meeting of school governors<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo35; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">director’s
meetings of small or large companies<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The written records of
these events are called the ‘minutes of meetings’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The purpose of taking
minutes of the meeting is more or less the same in each case – to keep an
accurate record of events for future possible reference.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">when it
took place,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">who was
in attendance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">who was
absent<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">what
was discussed<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">what
decisions were made<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The minutes of meetings
are a record of discussions and decisions, and over time they might form an
important historical record (in the case of a government’s war cabinet for
instance).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There might also be a
legal requirement for sets of minutes to be produced in an organisation – as in
the case of a bank or a limited company.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<b>Details<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The amount of detail
recorded will depend upon the type of meeting and maybe its historical culture.
Some organisations like to have a record that captures the spirit of the
discussions that took place; others put their emphasis on the decisions that
are made.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One thing is certain:
the person taking the minutes is not expected to give a dramatic or poetic
description of what takes place. The minutes of a meeting are a summary,
recording its most important features.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">You can get an idea of
the culture and style of the group by looking at the minutes of previous
meetings. These will give you a guide to the amount of detail normally required
and the way in which decisions are recorded.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Different types of
meetings record these details in various styles. A group of parents running a
children’s football team does not require the same degree of formality as a
managing board of company directors. Roughly speaking, there are three types of
minute taking<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Informal</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This might be no more
than a bulleted list of points, a table with boxes to record deadlines, or a
checklist of topics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Minimalist</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These will give a brief
information on time-date-place, who was present, and details of decisions or
resolutions passed. These can often be compressed onto a single side of A4
paper.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Detailed</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A document of several
pages, with headings and sub-headings, and maybe numbered points. These might
provide a record of the discussion in summarized form, along with named
individuals given specific responsibilities, plus any deadlines for action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Role of a Minutes
Secretary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The minutes of a
meeting are normally taken by the secretary, whilst the chair conducts the
meeting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is the role of the
chair to set the agenda, introduce items, and decide who speaks to the issues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In a very big
organisation the secretary might delegate the actual recording of events to an
assistant or clerk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It’s important that the
minutes secretary follows the progress of the meeting carefully, recording
major items of debate and decisions that are taken. The published agenda is a
useful template by which to take notes during the meeting. This keeps the order
of topics and the structure of the meeting intact.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For this reason the
secretary and the chair need to work closely in collaboration with each other.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If a decision taken by
the meeting is not clear, the secretary should ask the chair to clarify matters
– which often helps other people as well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some types of meeting
even require a record of who spoke to the issues on the agenda, and what points
of argument they made. In such cases, a summary rather than a verbatim record
is appropriate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Writing
the minutes of meetings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">It
is most likely that to make rough notes during the meeting, then convert these
to finished report of the meeting after it has finished.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Remember
that summarizing the content is the most important issues, so it is necessary
to use a number of skills at the same time<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo37; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">good listening skills<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo37; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">the ability to summarize<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo37; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">good note-taking skills<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At the meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">listen attentively, jotting down key words<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">use the agenda document as a template<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">leave enough space between items for your jottings<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">summarize what’s said, using a system of shorthand<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ask for clarification if necessary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Notes
on the Agenda<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">1.
The name of the meeting or group<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">This
can be very important in some cases – particularly if the minutes of the
meeting will be circulated widely outside the group itself, or even to the
public.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">2.
Those in attendance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">The
meeting might be composed of delegates or representatives from a variety of
organisations. It’s the secretary’s job to note both their names and the
organisations they represent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">List
the names in alphabetical order. This avoids any suggestion of priority or
importance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">3.
Minutes of the last meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">It
is usual for these to be looked at briefly, with a view to making sure that
everybody agrees they are a correct record.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">It
might be necessary to note the outcomes of any decisions taken on which action
has been taken<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Larger
or on-going issues very often appear on the agenda of the current meeting, and
discussion of them can be deferred until these items are considered.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">4.
Agenda item One<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">You
should keep the notes for each agenda item separate and quite distinct from
each other on the page.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Leave
plenty of space between the notes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Template
for Meeting Minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 536px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background: transparent; border: solid #CDCDCD 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CDCDCD .75pt; padding: 8.65pt 8.65pt 8.65pt 8.65pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1. Name of
Organisation or group<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2. Name of Meeting –
it might be a regular meeting or one with a specific purpose<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3. Date of Meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4. Names of those
attending – plus their positions or the organisations they represent<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5. Apologies for
absence – those giving their apologies for non-attendance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6. Agenda item One –
This is usually the minutes of the last meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">7. Agenda item Two<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">8. Agenda item Three …
and so on …<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">12. Date of the next
meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">13. Any other business<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">The
papers for a meeting might normally include the following documents (depending
on the formality of the meeting or group):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo39; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">An agenda for the forthcoming meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo39; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The minutes of the last meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 50.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo39; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Attachments, reports, or letters<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Committee
members are given these papers in advance, and they are supposed to have read
them all before they arrive at the meeting. That’s the theory – but the reality
is often different.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">People
often start reading through these documents at the meeting itself, and asking
questions about them – which is one of the many reasons that meetings take
longer than they should. It is the job of the chair to impose discipline over
such issues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Writing
up the minutes of meetings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">You
will be creating the minutes from your notes taken during the meeting. Here is
one overwhelmingly useful tip on this part of the task: The sooner after the
meeting you do it, the easier it will be.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">That’s
because your rough notes will make more sense, and you are not relying on your
medium or long term memory to recapture any names or details of the discussion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">The
structure of the minutes will mirror the meeting agenda<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Use
the past tense (“Mr Parkinson outlined the plan”) and avoid use of the passive
voice (“The plan was outlined by Mr Parkinson”)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA;">Some
organizations and groups like to draw attention to the decisions and outcomes
by concluding the report of each agenda item with an action point. Here’s an
example:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 41.65pt; margin-right: 39.05pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There was a discussion
of the proposed alternative route and the impact it would have on local
residents and businesses. It was unanimously decided that a formal challenge
should be registered at the earliest possible date.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 41.65pt; margin-right: 39.05pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ACTION POINT: The
treasurer Mrs Jones will seek volunteers to form a transport sub-committee, and
Mr Davis as chair will contact the four local councillors and invite them to
address the next meeting</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F7F7F7; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-outline-level: 5; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sample minutes of meetings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 536px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background: transparent; border: solid #CDCDCD 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #CDCDCD .75pt; padding: 8.65pt 8.65pt 8.65pt 8.65pt;" valign="top">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Westleigh Maintenance
Company Ltd</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Annual General Meeting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Monday 19 July 2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Present<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Julie Culshaw, Mary
Greenhalgh, Vera Sisson, Ingrid Kempster, Edward Kempster, Irene Rodger,
Colin Rodger, Gerry Clarke, Edith Pickles, Pat Powell, Heather Pollitt, Roy
Johnson.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Apologies<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Manoj Hira, Reg
Marsden, Lavinia Marsden, John Sillar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1. Minutes of the last
AGM held on 22 July 2009 were accepted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2. The accounts for
the year ended 31 March 2010 were accepted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Although these showed
an overall loss, this was due to late maintenance payments, and these had
since been paid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3. Appointment of
accountants<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The finance director
suggested that we remain with our current accountants, and this was accepted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4. Appointment of
directors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The current directors
were all standing for re-election. There were no nominations for new
directors. The current directors were re-elected.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5. Appointment of
company secretary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Julie Culshaw moved a
vote of thanks and appreciation to the secretary and other directors in
recognition of the amount of work they undertook on behalf of the Company.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Heather Pollitt was
elected as secretary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6. Increase in service
charge<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Because of the lack of
any surplus to pay for improvements and maintenance, the directors recently
looked into the possibility of arranging a bank overdraft. This was not
pursued because of the cost and the excessive bureaucracy attached. The
possibility of extraordinary payments was also discussed and rejected in
favour of an increase in the service charge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The meeting finally
agreed that the directors should prepare a financial projection for the next
one to two years, based on an increase in the annual service charge to
somewhere between £1100 and £1200.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Any Other Business<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">7. Managing agents<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The directors recently
decided to end the relationship with the Guthrie Partnership as managing
agents, because it was felt that the directors themselves were able to act
more efficiently on behalf of Westleigh and its interests.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">However, the advisory
services of Alec Guthrie himself would be retained as and when required for
legal purposes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">8. Maintenance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Directors had spoken
to Dave Roberts, who agreed to act as a point of contact for local
maintenance services. It was stressed that this did not represent an
agreement to cover the costs of any works commissioned: these could only be
met following agreement of the directors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Gerry Clarke reminded
the meeting that in cases where leaks from one apartment were affecting
another, the costs of any repairs and redecoration were the responsibility of
the owner causing the leaks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">9. Gardening<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There was general
dissatisfaction with the services provided by the current gardeners. A
quotation from another local gardening service had been obtained, and it was
agreed to change to this alternative service for a trial period once
sufficient funds were available – probably towards the end of September.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">10. Purchase of
freehold<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The purchase of the
freehold was now complete, and Westleigh owners were in a position to either
cease or continue making ground rent payments. Pat Powell suggested that the
current payment should be included in the annual service charge, payable by
one direct debit. This suggestion was accepted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">11. External
re-decoration<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The replacement of the
finials, cleaning of driveways, and repainting of fascia boards was almost
complete. A vote of thanks was extended to Edith Pickles for allowing the use
of her garage for storage during these works.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 24.3pt; margin-right: 21.7pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The meeting concluded
at 20.15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Welcome Speech<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 578px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 214.65pt;" width="286"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 214.6pt;" width="286"></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Welcome Speech</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">is must in a formal meeting. It is normally the president
who delivers the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>welcome
speech</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>welcome address</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as it is formally known.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To be effective, to fulfil its purpose, the speech must
meet expected, as well as specific, requirements dictated by the occasion.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The essential elements to cover in the opening remarks
are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.95pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to specifically
acknowledge and welcome any important guests<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.95pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to generally welcome all
the guests, stating the name of the event and host and thank them for coming<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.95pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to give a brief
introduction of the host<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.95pt; margin-left: 13.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to give a brief
introduction of the occasion<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to introduce the next
speaker if appropriate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">to conclude having made
everybody feel at ease, eagerly anticipating what is to come<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<b>Some guidelines :</b><br />
<br />
1.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Salutation</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>: This is the first formal speech in a
meeting. It is the duty of the speechmaker to start building a bridge between
the audience and the people on the dais (Incidentally, the stage is called Dais
pronounced dayis and not dayas) and so, his salutation will include the names
and designations of all the people on the dais.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
2.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>General Welcome</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>: It is my pleasant duty to welcome
you all to this meeting.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
3.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>History</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>: A few words about the past events
those which happened before the event that is happening.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
4.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Purpose of the meeting</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>: In the formal set up, the purpose of
the meeting should be explained to the audience so that they will start expecting
something out of the meeting.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
5.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Individual Welcome</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>: All the people on the dais who are
not members of your organisation need to be individually welcomed. The order is
first, the most important person for that meeting, generally the chief guest. Followed
by the guest of honour, if any. Do not begin the individual welcome by saying,
"when we went to meet Mr our chief guest…"<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
This is irrelevant. Similarly phrases like "Who readily accepted our
invitation" "Who has come here in spite of his busy schedule"
These are clichés and spoil the impact of your speech.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sample Welcome Speech</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Good evening; Professor
and Mrs. Smith, Chairman of the Board of Governors, Board Members, Honored
Guest and Advocate Green from the Education Council.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">May I take this opportunity
to welcome you all, and to extend a further word of welcome to everyone here
this evening.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Opening Day of our<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="ilad">new college </span>is
certainly a moment that we should all savor and enjoy. If you take a quick look
around you, I'm sure you will all agree that our college has come a long way in
the last few months.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It all started as a
dream. [Insert name of company] envisioned the dream of establishing a world
class educational institution; a college that would<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="ilad">mold</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and
guide future generations of enlightened minds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We would like to extend
our gratitude and thanks to all the role players that have made it possible for
the dream to become a reality. Tonight marks this occasion - the Opening and
Commencement Ceremony of our college.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">You are all most<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>welcome
to stay<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b>here this evening. I hope you enjoy the rest of
the evening's program and thank you for sharing this special event with us.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 53.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Proposing
Vote of Thanks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thanking is a great tradition of any function that is
organized in any from or even any social gathering. It is to give a proper end
to the celebration, were the dignitaries are thanked for their presence to the
function.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There are two major ideas for the proposer. The first
is to refer to the central message of the speech topics of the lectures or presentations
given by the previous public speakers.
And emphasize only positive statements, ideas and thoughts of the
keynote speakers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">To write a good vote of thanks, one must think about the
type of event where the thanks will be presented, making sure to express
gratitude to the stakeholders, be creative and not take too much time.</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A vote of thanks should have brevity because it is typically
given at the end of an event, so it is important to not make it too long or
drawn out. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">It
is very important to be aware of the audience that the vote of thanks will
address. For example, the speaker should be aware of the age of the audience
that he or she is addressing. Religious views, political leanings and other
characteristics should be taken into account as well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">A vote of
thanks speech should coincide with the event or ceremony underway, and should
express gratitude to all involved. It is also crucial the vote of thanks be
short, as it is usually the last item on the agenda, but nonetheless creative.
The vote of thanks speech should also demonstrate awareness of the audience,
their culture and expectations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Always request a list of
all the individuals who contributed to the meeting's success. This list should
be used to thank all involved. Even small displays of gratitude are welcome,
such as thanking someone for providing juice at the event.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">A vote of thanks should be
eloquent but should not use very long or technical words. A speech that is
difficult to understand will simply alienate the audience and take away
the importance of the speech's message. A thesaurus can come in handy for
finding the right words that will avoid this problem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Speeches are more
interesting when they include anecdotes, quotes, poems and other interesting
references. These speeches can also have more color added to them by making the
"thank you" parts creative and endearing, and as is the case with
many kinds of speeches, humor can be very useful.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">A quote, poem or scripture
usually adds flair to the speech, and shows the audience that the speaker took
time to prepare. Writers should try to add as many elements of creativity as
possible through the use of interesting and unique observations. A joke made in
good taste may also be appropriate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">A vote of thanks is often tough to do
well because the proposer are generally:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">a. following an established ‘headline’
speaker for the event who has been hired to wow the crowd<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">b. the last piece on the event agenda
– the audience are itching to get away<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">c. the last thing that the audience
will remember from the event – it’s your job to make a good final impression!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN">So, for your delight, here’s my tried
and trusted template for giving an engaging, concise and relevant vote of
thanks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Intro</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">– introduce yourself to the audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Thanks for attending</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">– thank the audience for coming along (they love being mentioned first!)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Emotion / joke</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">– make a humorous comment on the day or give a positive personal opinion
about the event. This helps to build rapport quickly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Specific thanks</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">– thank the speaker, highlighting three points from their speech that
you felt were the most enjoyable and relevant. Explain why you felt they were
so good.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Wish safe journey</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">– wish the audience a safe journey home (they love being mentioned
again!)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">Soundbite / action</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">– finish with a final point that is memorable and relevant – something
that the audience will remember.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN"> Here’s a short (humorous and fictional!) vote
of thanks written using this very template:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">[INTRO]</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><em><span lang="EN-IN">Good evening ladies and gentlemen, my name is Rich Watts and it is my
job this evening to give the vote of thanks.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">[THANKS]</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><em><span lang="EN-IN">I’d like to start by thanking you all for attending and supporting the
wonderful cause that is this fundraiser for the Monkey Tears charity.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">[EMOTION / HUMOUR]</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><em><span lang="EN-IN">The highlight for me has been Mrs Jones’ cake stall and if you haven’t
already, I’d urge you to try the blueberry muffins before you leave, but not
the chocolate ones, because I’m hoping to take as many as possible home with me
tonight!</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">[ SPECIFIC THANKS]</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><em><span lang="EN-IN">I’m sure you will all join me in thanking once again our speaker
tonight, Mr David Ferneybottom.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">APPLAUSE.</span></strong><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<em><span lang="EN-IN">David, I particularly enjoyed your speech. I
couldn’t agree more with your points about how we should all adopt a monkey
next year to help develop economic prosperity. Such a scheme truly is required
if we are to get out of this recession.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<em><span lang="EN-IN">I delighted in hearing about your experiences
of monkeys from your school days, and it reminded me vividly of my own
wonderful days of education and those long, hot summer holidays.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<em><span lang="EN-IN">Finally, I’m still laughing at your joke
about the banana and the monkey. I think we all are, and I shall be sharing it
with my wife when I return home tonight.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">[WISH SAFE JOURNEY]</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><em><span lang="EN-IN">All that remains now is for me to wish you all a safe journey home.</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span lang="EN-IN">[SOUNDBITE/ACTION]</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><em><span lang="EN-IN">And as My Ferneybottom has taught us – never mess with a monkey with a
banana in its hand!</span></em><span lang="EN-IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 5: English in the Internet Era<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">The Internet and English Vocabulary<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">For hundreds of years, technology has
been driving the evolution of the English language. In the fifteenth century,
the invention of the printing press established standard methods of spelling
English words. New forms of punctuation were invented to make printed texts
easier to read, and for the first time people from different regions began to
agree about English grammar. The invention of the telegraph, and later of the
radio and the television, had a term paper writing effect on the
English language. New words were invented to describe these new technologies,
and new styles of speech were invented by broadcasters. However, it is the
Internet that has had the largest effect on the English language, changing it
completely in less than two decades.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">The hallmark of Internet
communication is efficiency. People who began using e-mail, and later instant
messaging, found it efficient to invent a whole new world of acronyms, and
these spread like wildfire across the Internet. Acronyms such as ‘brb’ and
‘lol’ have made their way into the ordinary speech of young people, and even
into the pages of some respectable dictionaries. Meanwhile, it became so easy
to communicate over the Internet that people stopped writing things out with a
pen and paper. Letters have become obsolete, and everything from school
projects to professional reports are created on computers, with the aid of
online dictionaries and spellcheckers. Some studies have suggested that young
people no longer know how to spell, because they use programmes that
auto-correct their work. In this way, the Internet has had as large an effect
on spelling conventions as the printing press did, almost six hundred years
ago.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">More than any other technology, the
Internet has encouraged the invention of new words. Sometimes these words are
created by expanding the definition of existing words. ‘Traffic’ used to refer
to foot traffic, and then to horse and carriages, and then to automobiles. Now
it refers to people visiting a website. Words like ‘cyberspace’ and ‘virtual’
were originally invented by science fiction authors, but they were adopted by
early Internet users, and entered the wider vocabulary of the public. A ‘virus’
used to be something that made you sick, but today it’s a destructive programme
that spreads itself across the Internet. The word ‘wireless’ was originally
used for radio communication, but today it refers to wireless Internet. If you
use a social networking site such as Facebook, you will be familiar with
‘tagging’ people, or ‘posting’ something to your ‘wall.’ These words all had
similar definitions in the past, but they have been given a new twist and are
used to refer to virtual activities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">Sometimes words are given entirely
new definitions. A ‘troll’ used to be a malicious creature from Norse legend,
but now it refers to someone who enjoys harassing other people over the
Internet. ‘Spam’ used to be a kind of canned meat, but now it refers to a
self-replicating message, often containing advertising, or promoting a scam. A
‘stream’ used to refer to running water, but now it’s a constantly updating
stream of information. Sometimes the Internet creates new verbs out of nouns.
‘Troll’ and ‘stream’ can both be used as verbs, and ‘google’ is an entirely new
verb that has even been included in some dictionaries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Txt
spk<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One
language change that has definitely been overhyped is so-called text speak, a
mixture of often vowel-free abbreviations and acronyms, says Prof Crystal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"People
say that text messaging is a new language and that people are filling texts
with abbreviations - but when you actually analyse it you find they're
not," he said.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In
fact only 10% of the words in an average text are not written in full, he
added.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wireless in the 1950s
meant a radio. It's very rare to talk about a radio now as a wireless, unless
you're of a particular generation or trying to be ironic Fiona McPherson,
Senior editor, Oxford English Dictionary<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They may be in the
minority but acronyms seem to anger as many people as they delight.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stephen
Fry once blasted the acronym CCTV (closed circuit television) for being
"such a bland, clumsy, rythmically null and phonically forgettable word,
if you can call it a word". But his inelegant group of letters is one of
many acronyms to earn a place in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). The
secret of their success is their longevity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"We
need evidence that people are using a word over a period of time," said
Fiona McPherson, senior editor in the new words group at the OED. She says the
group looks for evidence that a word has been in use for at least five years
before it can earn its place in the dictionary. Such evidence comes in the form
of correspondence from the public and trawling through dated material to find
out when a term first started appearing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hence
TMI (Too Much Information) and WTF (you may wish to look that one up for
yourself) are in, while OMG (Oh My God) has yet to be included in the quarterly
dictionary updates. "Some people get quite exercised and say, 'do these
things belong in our language?'," said Ms McPherson. "But maybe this
has always happened. TTFN [ta ta for now] is from the ITMA (It's That Man
Again) radio series in the 1940s."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Word
thief<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There is no doubt that
technology has had a "significant impact" on language in the last 10
years, says Ms McPherson.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
entirely new words like the verb 'to google', or look something up on a search
engine, and the noun 'app', used to describe programmes for smartphones (not
yet in the OED), have either been recently invented or come into popular use.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Image captionWebsite internetslang.com lists 5,090
English language acronyms in use.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But the hijacking of
existing words and phrases is more common.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ms
McPherson points out that the phrase "social networking" debuted in
the OED in 1973. Its definition - "the use or establishment of social
networks or connections" - has only comparatively recently been linked to
internet-based activities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"These
are words that have arisen out of the phenomenon rather than being technology
words themselves," she added.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Wireless
in the 1950s meant a radio. It's very rare to talk about a radio now as a
wireless, unless you're of a particular generation or trying to be ironic. The
word has taken on a whole new significance."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For Prof Crystal it is
still too early to fully evaluate the impact of technology on language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"The
whole phenomenon is very recent - the entire technology we're talking about is
only 20 years old as far as the popular mind is concerned."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sometimes
the worst thing that can happen to a word is that it becomes too mainstream, he
argues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Remember
a few years ago, West Indians started talking about 'bling'. Then the white
middle classes started talking about it and they stopped using it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 18.5pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"That's typical of
slang - it happens with internet slang as well."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">Words that were adopted and modified
by Internet users come full circle when they make their way back into everyday
speech. The word ‘troll’ is a perfect example. It used to refer to a strange,
inhuman creature living in the woods of Northern Europe, and then it came to
refer to someone behaving badly on the Internet. Now someone can be called a
troll when they behave obnoxiously in real life. The word ‘lurking’ is another
example. It was adopted by Internet users to refer to someone who views an
online conversation without contributing. Now people use it in real life to
refer to someone who is part of a group but doesn’t join in the conversation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">The Internet has only existed for a
short time, but it’s already had a huge effect on the way people communicate.
It’s too soon to judge how permanent the effect of the Internet will be on
society and the English </span><a href="http://assignmenthelponline.co.uk/"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .2pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">assignment help</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;"> language,
but it’s likely that the changes people have made to the way they speak will
last for hundreds of years. It’s also possible that a new technology will come
along and replace the Internet, and acronyms such as ‘lol’ will seem like
archaisms to our grandchildren.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.2pt; line-height: 115%;">Role and Scope of Online English
Dictionaries<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">There are different reputable internet equipment
including on the internet English dictionaries, systems for grammar examining,
as well as other processing equipment. Other than the comfort, online
dictionaries promptly reduce the restrictions of printed reference resources.
Several of your customers imagine that they do not need to update their
dictionaries generally, due to the fact the means of text will not adjust.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">On one other hand, words as well as their meanings are
dynamic. Online English dictionaries are auto-updated; in actual fact here is
the primary benefit of on the web dictionaries above printed kinds. A web based
dictionary is up-to-date quickly. It means that every new phrase or terminology
might be extra during the databases of on the net dictionary. One among the
very best traits of these dictionaries would be the translation feature, e.g.
an online dictionary can translate an English word into Italian and vice versa.
This may be an essential resource for understanding an international language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Another benefit is of benefit, i.e. just input the term
and the internet site research motor will do the rest of the work. No much more
spelling look at time, no want of any systems for grammar checking, no much
more throwing away time in looking for the right phrase as well as the right
indicating. An on-line dictionary is actually a great tool of data, especially
if we know how you can distinguish a fantastic on line dictionary from the bad
a single. Also many of us check out on line dictionary as dietary supplements
to print dictionaries and not an alternative. We frequently fail to remember
which the dictionary offers the meaning of the term. It doesn’t correct the
grammar, as is finished through the programs used for grammar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Nevertheless, it remains a reality that on line
dictionaries is advantageous. A lot of people may be careful in relation to
employing on the web dictionaries due to the uncertainty connected with the
supply. Although the thousands and thousands who use this modern facility act
as a pointer that the on-line dictionaries could be good as the real thing. For
a final result, the person gets all the rewards s/he justifies from his/her
effort, and nothing fewer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Dictionary
online provides complete search regarding definitions, pronunciation, spelling,
thesaurus entries and etymology results for any word. The online dictionary can
be browsed alphabetically or by the terms related to the word to find the exact
meanings and synonyms of the word. There are online dictionaries in different
languages like French, Italian, Spanish and German.<br />
<br />
There are also online dictionaries covering varied subjects, such as computer,
science, and medical, pharmaceutical and also industry specific terms. The
information available on online dictionary is gathered from various sources
like Wikipedia, encyclopedias, the acronym finder databases, and financial and
legal dictionaries. The online thesaurus is also available that has a list of
words with similar meanings.<br />
<br />
One of the biggest advantages of dictionary online is that it is free to access
so your money is saved that otherwise gets wasted in buying printed version of
dictionary. Moreover, people can also compile their own personal dictionary by
selecting some every day words from online dictionary. The option of audio
helps you to listen and learn the pronunciation of any difficult word which you
are not able to spell out properly.<br />
<br />
<strong>Special-purpose dictionaries</strong><br />
<br />
There are online multi-field dictionaries that cover different semantic fields
whereas a single-field online dictionary covers only one subject field. There
are also online sub-field dictionaries that further cover a singular field of a
subject. There are also different types of online special-purpose dictionaries
that include multilingual, bilingual, scientific, biographical, technical,
historical and geographical dictionaries. Learner's dictionaries assist the
people in learning a language whereas bi-lingual online dictionaries help in
translating languages.<br />
<br />
If you are struggling with finding meanings of technical terminology then one
can access technical dictionary that especially covers technical related
subjects. The technical online dictionary proves beneficial for medical and
computer dictionaries. The visual online dictionary is an interactive
dictionary with pictures offering an innovative approach for learning the
meanings of words. It is an all-in-one reference book in which we can quickly
locate the picture of a word. It provides an easy and accessible way of
learning words. So, the visual dictionary is ideal for teachers, students,
parents and translators. Now-a-days, dictionary software is also available in
PDAs format that can be easily downloaded on computers. Not only on computers,
the dictionary software can also be downloaded on mobiles too thus can be
accessed anywhere at any point of an hour.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Language and the advent of technology<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Here are some statistics
for you:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">More people currently have a
mobile phone capable of accessing the internet than have a PC with net
access (source: Mobile Top Level Domain, the organisation charged with
overseeing the ‘.mobi’ domain name registration)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sending text messages is now
almost as common as talking on mobile phones<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Only 12% of mobile users never use
their phone for texting (and virtually half of these people are over 65).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">70% of 15-24 year-olds say they
‘could not live’ without their mobile phone<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are an estimated 110
million-150 million blogs in existence (although many of these are
abandoned soon after they are established)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Technology’s role in our
lives is astonishing. Its effect on the way we communicate has changed the
English language forever. To be more specific, the way we speak today is, by and
large, the way we spoke before the internet became what it is, albeit with an
enriched vocabulary. Conventions of telephone conversations have, to my mind,
changed little: we still use the same methods – if not words – to greet and
sign off, for example.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What is hugely
different, however, is the way we write today. That is the area where
technology has had the biggest impact. Email altered the structure of the
letter as a communicative tool. It brought with it a whole new etiquette, as
well as new conventions and new abbreviations, such as IMO (in my opinion),
FWIW (for what it’s worth), IIRC (if I remember correctly) and FYI (for your
information).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And it
introduced the idea that WORDS IN UPPER CASE MEAN WE ARE SHOUTING, while lower
case writing is the accepted form. But email English is nothing compared to the
impact upon language driven by mobile phone users. The rate and extent of
change this has had is truly astounding. The way we write our text messages is
now so widely accepted that it has infiltrated mainstream advertising. Here are
two examples I can think of immediately:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Virgin Media, the
British company, ran a campaign several months ago for its provision of
broadband (or Brdbnd, as it called it) and, a little more locally to me, a
council campaign advised us: ‘Dnt B Wstfl’. And then we have the meteoric rise
of blogging. There are now well over 100million blogs worldwide. Add to that
the even-more-baffling growth of the key social networking websites – MySpace,
Bebo, Facebook – and we start to see the whole picture. The watch-words today
are ‘user-generated content’ (UGC). So, to sum up…email + texting + blogging +
social networking sites = people writing more how they speak and less like they
used to write. And, essentially, less like they had to write – either for a
boss, a parent or a teacher.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Also,
let’s remember one of the basic driving elements in this transition: the screen
size of mobile phones is small and, therefore, text messaging was always, by
default, short. And short, inevitably, becomes shorter. People frequently
writing the same things would reduce the length of those words and phrases so
that the meaning remained intact while the effort required communicating – and
the amount of screen space used – were both minimized. While mainstream,
digital communication alters language use, it does not eradicate the
traditional; it merely sits alongside convention. And there are plenty of
people who are still interested in English as we have known it since before the
1990s, when mobiles and Messrs Page and Brin (Google’s founders) came to
prominence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">For hundreds of years, technology has been driving the
evolution of the English language. In the fifteenth century, the invention of
the printing press established standard methods of spelling English words. New
forms of punctuation were invented to make printed texts easier to read, and
for the first time people from different regions began to agree about English
grammar. The invention of the telegraph, and later of the radio and the
television, had an term paper writing effect on the English language. New words
were invented to describe these new technologies, and new styles of speech were
invented by broadcasters. However, it is the Internet that has had the largest
effect on the English language, changing it completely in less than two
decades.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The hallmark of Internet communication is efficiency.
People who began using e-mail, and later instant messaging, found it efficient
to invent a whole new world of acronyms, and these spread like wildfire across
the Internet. Acronyms such as ‘brb’ and ‘lol’ have made their way into the
ordinary speech of young people, and even into the pages of some respectable
dictionaries. Meanwhile, it became so easy to communicate over the Internet
that people stopped writing things out with a pen and paper. Letters have
become obsolete, and everything from school projects to professional reports
are created on computers, with the aid of online dictionaries and
spellcheckers. Some studies have suggested that young people no longer know how
to spell, because they use programmes that auto-correct their work. In this
way, the Internet has had as large an effect on spelling conventions as the
printing press did, almost six hundred years ago.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">More than any other technology, the Internet has
encouraged the invention of new words. Sometimes these words are created by
expanding the definition of existing words. ‘Traffic’ used to refer to foot
traffic, and then to horse and carriages, and then to automobiles. Now it
refers to people visiting a website. Words like ‘cyberspace’ and ‘virtual’ were
originally invented by science fiction authors, but they were adopted by early
Internet users, and entered the wider vocabulary of the public. A ‘virus’ used
to be something that made you sick, but today it’s a destructive programme that
spreads itself across the Internet. The word ‘wireless’ was originally used for
radio communication, but today it refers to wireless Internet. If you use a
social networking site such as Facebook, you will be familiar with ‘tagging’
people, or ‘posting’ something to your ‘wall.’ These words all had similar
definitions in the past, but they have been given a new twist and are used to
refer to virtual activities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Sometimes words are given entirely new definitions. A
‘troll’ used to be a malicious creature from Norse legend, but now it refers to
someone who enjoys harassing other people over the Internet. ‘Spam’ used to be
a kind of canned meat, but now it refers to a self-replicating message, often
containing advertising, or promoting a scam. A ‘stream’ used to refer to
running water, but now it’s a constantly updating stream of information.
Sometimes the Internet creates new verbs out of nouns. ‘Troll’ and ‘stream’ can
both be used as verbs, and ‘google’ is an entirely new verb that has even been
included in some dictionaries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Words that were adopted and modified by Internet users
come full circle when they make their way back into everyday speech. The word
‘troll’ is a prefect example. It used to refer to a strange, inhuman creature
living in the woods of Northern Europe, and then it came to refer to someone
behaving badly on the Internet. Now someone can be called a troll when they
behave obnoxiously in real life. The word ‘lurking’ is another example. It was
adopted by Internet users to refer to someone who views an online conversation
without contributing. Now people use it in real life to refer to someone who is
part of a group but doesn’t join in the conversation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The Internet has only existed for a short time, but it’s
already had a huge effect on the way people communicate. It’s too soon to judge
how permanent the effect of the Internet will be on society and the English </span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://assignmenthelponline.co.uk/"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">assignment
help</span></a> language, but
it’s likely that the changes people have made to the way they speak will last
for hundreds of years. It’s also possible that a new technology will come along
and replace the Internet, and acronyms such as ‘lol’ will seem like archaisms
to our grandchildren.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-62976010363614585812017-05-05T23:45:00.001-07:002017-05-05T23:45:11.339-07:00British Literature III - University of Madras : BA English [Sem 3]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="Section1">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">II BA ENGLISH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SEMESTER III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Core Paper – V British Literature III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit- 1: Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Social impact of the two world wars, the Labour Movement, the Welfare
State<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SOCIAL IMPAPCT OF TWO WORLD WARS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
First World War had a profound impact on British society. It swept away much of
the Victorian and Edwardian order and established many of the features that we
associate with modern twentieth century Britain. The scale and duration of the
conflict with the central powers was such that, for the first time, the whole
of British society was mobilised for what historians have termed ‘total war.’
These changes did not take place overnight in August 1914. It was a gradual and
cumulative process, governed more by reactions to events than by any grand
strategy. The Central agent of Change was the British state. In the early
stages of war, its role was largely confined to security issues such as the
Defence of Realm Act, censorship and aliens. But from 1915 onwards, state power
was extended into new areas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> By
1915, there was a pressing need to mobilise greater human resources to keep
pace with escalating production demands in the war industries. The shell
scandal of May 1915 revealed that competing firms were producing poor-quality
munitions in wholly insufficient numbers. The Asquith government subsequently
created the first of the new war ministries, the ministry of munitions under
Lloyd George which intensified munitions productions with considerable success.
Output increased enormously. Up to April 1915, two million rounds of shells had
been sent to France. By the end of the war, the figure stood at 187 million
rounds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
acute labour shortage that became apparent in 1915 also led to another radical
departure from the pre-war order: the large scale employment of women in
industry. From June 1915 when they were first employed in munition factories to
the end of the war, at least one million were added to the British work force.
Half of them were employed in manufacturing jobs, largely in the munitions
industry, that had previously been seen as an almost exclusively male domain.
The important contribution of women to the war effort was at least partially
recognised in 1918, Representation of People Act, which extended the franchise
to women over the age of 30. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> British
Society was changed by its war time experiences in other ways, too. State
intervention was extended into areas such as rent control (1915), conscription
(1916), price control (1917), rationing (1918) and even alcohol dilution. The
war heralded seismic political shifts: the collapse of the Liberal Party, the
rise of Labour and Britain’s first near- democratic franchise. More generally,
some observers noted both during and after the conflict, the First World War
broke down some- though by no means all- of the class-based habits of deference
that had characterized Victorian and Edwardian Britain. The blood sacrifices of
the British people demanded some form of democratic payback. The coalition
government that emerged from the coupon election of December 1918 thus changed
itself with the task of creating a land fit for heroes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">THE WELFARE STATE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">After
the second World War, the incoming Labour government introduced the Welfare
State. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">It applied recommendations from the
pioneering civil servant Sir William Beveridge and aimed to wipe out poverty
and hardship in society.</span> In December 1942</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/help/glossary-w.htm#William_Beveridge" title="Glossary term - William Beveridge"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William Beveridge</span></a>, a senior civil servant, identified
five 'giant evils' that plagued society: Disease, Want, Ignorance, Squalor,
Idleness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">He
published his findings in a popular report titled 'Social Insurance and Allied
Services'. Britain's National Insurance system had previously been looked after
by different agencies (including charities and government departments) and was
in a fragmented state. In recommending new ways to relieve the five 'giant
evils', Beveridge became known as the Father of the Welfare State, although he
disliked the term.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Beveridge
had social security in mind: in return for paying a national insurance
contribution, the citizen would gain security against the major ills. Beveridge
insisted on the contributory element to the programme, as he did not want to
damage people's sense of independence and personal responsibility. Neither did
he want to redistribute wealth between classes, believing people should be free
to better themselves if they had the ability and possibility to do so.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">First Measures<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The
first of Beveridge's proposals came into effect before the war ended. In 1944,
a Ministry of National Insurance was set up in Newcastle, and in June 1945 the
Conservative government passed the Family Allowances Act. The payments were 5
shillings for every child per week, lower than Beveridge had proposed, and only
given from the birth of the second child. Campaigners were pleased, but further
progress had to wait for the general election in July 1945. The result was a
landslide victory for the Labour Party under</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/help/glossary-c.htm#Clement_Attlee" title="Glossary term - Clement Attlee"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Clement Attlee</span></a>. Attlee had campaigned hard under the
banner of the creation of a Welfare State and now seized upon Beveridge's
proposals as a basis for radical action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">National Insurance and
Assistance<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Beveridge
recommended that means testing, and other fragmented approaches to helping
those in need, be replaced by one system. All workers would pay into a national
insurance scheme run by the government instead of insurance companies. There
would be a flat rate contribution and everyone would be entitled to a flat rate
benefit. The flat rate for unemployment or sickness insurance would be high
enough and long lasting enough that there would be no need for public
assistance. In order to remove poverty there would be extra benefits that
provided for children and health care.Overall, there was very little opposition
to government plans. As British historian Kenneth Morgan put it:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">' The Welfare State, the other main
government initiative of this period, also excited only limited controversy.
All parties and all commentators, it seemed, emerged from the war beneath the
mighty intellectual shade of William Beveridge and the 'cradle to the grave'
philosophy.' - Kenneth Morgan, The People's Peace, 2001.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">This
was surprising, as Beveridge himself did not want people to become dependent on
the Welfare State, and wanted benefits to be fairly limited.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">National Insurance Act
1946<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The
National Insurance (NI) Act was passed in 1946. NI now became compulsory for
all workers except married women. Most people paid the fairly substantial 4s
11d a week (almost as much as received for each child in family allowance per
week). In return, workers received benefits for 'interruption of earnings' as a
result of illness, and for unemployment or old age. For the elderly, a state
pension was paid when men reached 65 and women reached 60. Older workers were
encouraged to continue working and two thirds of men decided to carry on rather
than take up their pension. Mothers received a lump sum on the birth of each
child and if they had been paying NI, received an allowance for 18 weeks. A
death grant gave widows help with funeral expenses and as an extension to the
scheme, the Industrial Injuries Act gave compensation for people injured or
killed at work.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The
hope was to have all of Beveridge's plans in operation by 1948 - but this did
not prove possible. The benefit provided was not based on a national minimum
standard of living. Government fixed one rate, promising to review it every
five years. Although Beveridge had proposed benefits for divorced women, women
looking after parents and sickness benefit for housewives, these measures were
not included.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">National Assistance Board
1948<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">All
these benefits only applied to insured workers, so in 1948 the National
Assistance Board (NAB) was set up to cover those not insured. The NAB took over
the old</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/help/glossary-p.htm#Public_Assistance_Committees_PACs" title="Glossary term - Public Assistance Committees (PACs)"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Public Assistance Committees (PACs)</span></a></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">and for the first time, without the earnings of their families being
considered, claimants were interviewed to see what kind of help they needed.
Means testing was ended.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Labour
governments also tackled some of the other ills Beveridge identified. The slum
clearances (that had effectively begun after the</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN"><a href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/help/glossary-l.htm#Luftwaffe" title="Glossary term - Luftwaffe"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Luftwaffe</span></a></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">bombing in the Second World War) continued and a huge house-building
programme was instituted. In 1948 Labour set up the National Health Service
(NHS) and since there was already a free, compulsory state education service,
the people of Britain now probably had the most comprehensive Welfare State
system in the world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-IN">THE LABOUR MOVEMENT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">From the earliest times workers have formed
associations to defend their rights and interests against their employers. As
they developed as a Class, organised resistance against capitalist exploitation
and oppression was essential in order to fight for the unity of the working
class and to organise to end the system of exploitation of man by man. Socialism
has become the ultimate goal under the Capitalist System.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The British Working Class is rightly proud of and
loyal to its great traditions of militant organisation, determined and heroic
struggle, all of which have characterised its history.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In the earliest days, whatever they may have been
called, there were nation-wide organisations like the Great Society of the
Fourteenth Century or local Craft bodies like the Yeomen Gilds. These were in
essence the earliest forms of unions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Economic advancement, at first hindered the
formation of permanent combinations among the Journeymen of the middle ages.
Certain classes of skilled manual workers, who had no chance of becoming
employers, do appear to have succeeded in establishing long lasting
combinations. Nevertheless, the Industrial Revolution changed things making
wider and more formidable combinations possible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The partly deliberate and partly natural
concealment and secrecy of Trade Unionism of the eighteenth century makes it
next to impossible to write History. The members of the earliest clubs were the
skilled. Unskilled workers, if they had any such societies, have left no traces
of them in history.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A glimpse of activity in 1718 was where a
proclamation against unlawful clubs in Devon and Somerset complains about how
great numbers of wool combers and weavers had illegally presumed to use a
common seal. The proclamation complains about how they tried to ‘Act as bodies
Corporate’ by making and unlawfully conspiring to execute certain by-laws or
Orders, whereby they pretended to determine who had the right to the Trade,
what and how many Apprentices and Journeymen each should keep at once. When the
Masters would not submit they fed them with money till they could again get
employment in order to oblige their Masters to employ them for want of other
hands.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1754, 300 Norwich Wool Weavers, desiring to
obtain an increase in wages, retreated to a hill three miles away from the town
and built huts. They lived there for six weeks supported by contributions from fellow
workers.By 1721 the Journeymen of Tailors of London had a powerful and
permanent union.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When the capitalist builder or contractor began to
supersede the master mason, master plasterer etc., this class of small
entrepreneurs had again to give place to a hierarchy of hired workers, Trade
Unions in the modern sense, began to arise.<br />
The Trade Union was the successor of the Guild. Both institutions had arisen
“under the breaking up of an old system.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">From the moment that to establish a given business
more capital is required than a Journeyman can easily accumulate within a few
years, guild-mastership – the mastership of the masterpiece, becomes little
more than a name. Labour and skill are like commodities. Skill has a value, but
skill only has a value if it is sold, hired out to capital. Here you have the
opposition of interests between capital and labour. Labour groups together and
organises the TradeSociety.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Industrial society is still divided vertically
trade by trade, instead of horizontally between employers and wage earners. It
is the horizontal cleavage, which would transform the organisation of petty and
narrow-minded craft mentality of the skilled into the modem Trade Union
Movement. The pioneers of the Trade Union movement were not the trade clubs of
the town Artisans but the extensive combinations of the West of England Woollen
workers and Midland framework knitters.<strong><span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">THE COMBINATION ACTS</span></strong><strong><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">An endeavour by the ruling class was made to make
even economic resistance impossible. The act against illegal oaths passed in
1797 against the Nore Mutineers was used to break up existing Trade Unions; the
Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 outlawed them altogether. They gave the
masters unlimited power to reduce wages and make conditions more severe.</span><b><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The sentences passed on the compositors of The
Times in 1810 by the Common Sergeant of London, Sir John (“Bloody Black Jack”)
Sylvester, which induced reformer Francis Place to devote himself to repeal of
the acts. It was the textile industries where the weight of the acts was felt;
the trade clubs of the artisans were half tolerated.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">During the reign of this anti-union reign of terror
it gave birth to real trade unionism. Huge strikes or “turnouts” as they were
called took place. The Scottish Weavers in 1812; the Lancashire Spinners in
1818; the North East Coast Miners in 1810; Scotland 1818 and South Wales 1816
(including the Ironfounders, they succeeded in defeating a wage reduction). The
advance of unity through these bitter years saw the emergence of the first complete
national unions. The Calicoprinters, The Friendly Society of Ironfounders, the
Papermakers and the Ropemakers were these national unions.Without the struggle
there would have been no room for the pushing through of a Bill repealing the
Combination Laws.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The repeal of the Combination Act seemed to have
done nothing but to prove the futility of mere sectional combination (due to
the commercial slump of 1825). The emancipated combinations were no more able
to resist reductions than the secret ones had been. Working men turned back
again from Trade Union action to the larger aims and wider character of the
radical and socialist agitations of the time with which from 1829 to 1842, the
Trade Union Movement had become inextricably entangled.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">THE
NEW UNIONISM OF 1829-34</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Just before this period it is appropriate to say
that the Lancashire Spinners struggles of the mid-twenties had a consequent
development of organisation. A number of trades agreed to form a General Union
of Trades, or philanthropic society that became known as the Philanthropic
Hercules (presumably intended as a legal cover because of the Combination
acts). This was the essence of the idea or one big union.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It was in Lancashire that the first outstanding
trades union leader appeared, John Doherty. He was the moving spirit in a
conference of English, Scottish and Irish textile workers held in the Isle of
Man in 1829 at which the Grand General Union of the UK was set up. Despite of
its name, it appears to have been a union of cotton spinners only.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1830 Doherty became secretary to the National
Association for the Protection of Labour. This was the first Trades Union or
Union of Trades, as distinct from organisations catering for one section of the
workers only. The year1831 saw the National UnionOf the Working Classes,
(formed by William Lovett to support the Reform Bill and with others, in
London, became the Metropolitan Trades Union, to which many unions affiliated.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1833, the Operative Builders Union was formed
out of a number of craft unions reaching a membership of 40,000 mainly around
Manchester and Birmingham. Early in 1834 it merged into the Grand National
Consolidated Trades Union.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At this time,<a href="" name="_GoBack"></a> Radical
politics were on the agenda and given great attention to by radical newspapers
such as “Voice of the People.” They gave attention to the repeal of the union
with Ireland and the progress of revolution on the continent.The Owenite
newspapers towards the end of 1833 were full of references to the formation of
a General Union of the Productive Classes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit- 2: Prose<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tradition
and Individual Talent – T S Eliott<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In English writing we seldom speak of
tradition, though we occasionally apply its name in deploring its absence. We
cannot refer to “the tradition” or to “a tradition”; at most, we employ the
adjective in saying that the poetry of So-and-so is “traditional” or even “too
traditional.” Seldom, perhaps, does the word appear except in a phrase of
censure. If otherwise, it is vaguely approbative, with the implication, as to
the work approved, of some pleasing archaeological reconstruction. You can
hardly make the word agreeable to English ears without this comfortable
reference to the reassuring science of archaeology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Certainly the word is not likely to appear in
our appreciations of living or dead writers. Every nation, every race, has not
only its own creative, but its own critical turn of mind; and is even more
oblivious of the shortcomings and limitations of its critical habits than of
those of its creative genius. We know, or think we know, from the enormous mass
of critical writing that has appeared in the French language the critical
method or habit of the French; we only conclude (we are such unconscious
people) that the French are “more critical” than we, and sometimes even plume
ourselves a little with the fact, as if the French were the less spontaneous.
Perhaps they are; but we might remind ourselves that criticism is as inevitable
as breathing, and that we should be none the worse for articulating what passes
in our minds when we read a book and feel an emotion about it, for criticizing
our own minds in their work of criticism. One of the facts that might come to
light in this process is our tendency to insist, when we praise a poet, upon
those aspects of his work in which he least resembles any one else. In these
aspects or parts of his work we pretend to find what is individual, what is the
peculiar essence of the man. We dwell with satisfaction upon the poet’s
difference from his predecessors, especially his immediate predecessors; we
endeavour to find something that can be isolated in order to be enjoyed.
Whereas if we approach a poet without this prejudice we shall often find that
not only the best, but the most individual parts of his work may be those in
which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously.
And I do not mean the impressionable period of adolescence, but the period of
full maturity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet if the only form of tradition, of handing
down, consisted in following the ways of the immediate generation before us in
a blind or timid adherence to its successes, “tradition” should positively be
discouraged. We have seen many such simple currents soon lost in the sand; and
novelty is better than repetition. Tradition is a matter of much wider
significance. It cannot be inherited, and if you want if you must obtain it by
great labour. It involves, in the first place, the historical sense, which we
may call nearly indispensable to any one who would continue to be a poet beyond
his twenty-fifth year; and the historical sense involves a perception, not only
of the pastness of the past, but of its presence; the historical sense compels
a man to write not merely with his own generation in his bones, but with a
feeling that the whole of the literature of Europe from Homer and within it the
whole of the literature of his own country has a simultaneous existence and
composes a simultaneous order. This historical sense, which is a sense of the
timeless as well as of the temporal and of the timeless and of the temporal together,
is what makes a writer traditional. And it is at the same time what makes a
writer most acutely conscious of his place in time, of his own contemporaneity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No poet, no artist of any
art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance, his appreciation is the
appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists. You cannot value
him alone; you must set him, for contrast and comparison, among the dead. I
mean this as a principle of aesthetic, not merely historical, criticism. The
necessity that he shall conform, that he shall cohere, is not onesided; what
happens when a new work of art is created is something that happens
simultaneously to all the works of art which preceded it. The existing
monuments form an ideal order among themselves, which is modified by the
introduction of the new (the really new) work of art among them. The existing
order is complete before the new work arrives; for order to persist after the
supervention of novelty, the <i>whole</i> existing order must be, if
ever so slightly, altered; and so the relations, proportions, values of each
work of art toward the whole are readjusted; and this is conformity between the
old and the new. Whoever has approved this idea of order, of the form of
European, of English literature will not find it preposterous that the past
should be altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the
past. And the poet who is aware of this will be aware of great difficulties and
responsibilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In a peculiar sense he will be aware also
that he must inevitably be judged by the standards of the past. I say judged,
not amputated, by them; not judged to be as good as, or worse or better than,
the dead; and certainly not judged by the canons of dead critics. It is a
judgment, a comparison, in which two things are measured by each other. To
conform merely would be for the new work not really to conform at all; it would
not be new, and would therefore not be a work of art. And we do not quite say
that the new is more valuable because it fits in; but its fitting in is a test
of its value—a test, it is true, which can only be slowly and cautiously
applied, for we are none of us infallible judges of conformity. We say: it
appears to conform, and is perhaps individual, or it appears individual, and
many conform; but we are hardly likely to find that it is one and not the
other.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To proceed to a more
intelligible exposition of the relation of the poet to the past: he can neither
take the past as a lump, an indiscriminate bolus, nor can he form himself
wholly on one or two private admirations, nor can he form himself wholly upon
one preferred period. The first course is inadmissible, the second is an
important experience of youth, and the third is a pleasant and highly desirable
supplement. The poet must be very conscious of the main current, which does not
at all flow invariably through the most distinguished reputations. He must be
quite aware of the obvious fact that art never improves, but that the material
of art is never quite the same. He must be aware that the mind of Europe—the
mind of his own country—a mind which he learns in time to be much more
important than his own private mind—is a mind which changes, and that this
change is a development which abandons nothing <i>en route</i>, which does
not superannuate either Shakespeare, or Homer, or the rock drawing of the
Magdalenian draughtsmen. That this development, refinement perhaps,
complication certainly, is not, from the point of view of the artist, any
improvement. Perhaps not even an improvement from the point of view of the
psychologist or not to the extent which we imagine; perhaps only in the end
based upon a complication in economics and machinery. But the difference
between the present and the past is that the conscious present is an awareness
of the past in a way and to an extent which the past’s awareness of itself
cannot show.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Some one said: “The dead
writers are remote from us because we <i>know</i> so much more than
they did.” Precisely, and they are that which we know.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I am alive to a usual
objection to what is clearly part of my programme for the <i>métier</i> of
poetry. The objection is that the doctrine requires a ridiculous amount of
erudition (pedantry), a claim which can be rejected by appeal to the lives of
poets in any pantheon. It will even be affirmed that much learning deadens or
perverts poetic sensibility. While, however, we persist in believing that a
poet ought to know as much as will not encroach upon his necessary receptivity
and necessary laziness, it is not desirable to confine knowledge to whatever
can be put into a useful shape for examinations, drawing-rooms, or the still
more pretentious modes of publicity. Some can absorb knowledge, the more tardy
must sweat for it. Shakespeare acquired more essential history from Plutarch
than most men could from the whole British Museum. What is to be insisted upon
is that the poet must develop or procure the consciousness of the past and that
he should continue to develop this consciousness throughout his career.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What happens is a continual surrender of himself
as he is at the moment to something which is more valuable. The progress of an
artist is a continual self-sacrifice, a continual extinction of personality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There remains to define this process of
depersonalization and its relation to the sense of tradition. It is in this
depersonalization that art may be said to approach the condition of science. I,
therefore, invite you to consider, as a suggestive analogy, the action which
takes place when a bit of finely filiated platinum is introduced into a chamber
containing oxygen and sulphur dioxide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">II<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Honest criticism and
sensitive appreciation are directed not upon the poet but upon the poetry. If
we attend to the confused cries of the newspaper critics and the <i>susurrus</i> of
popular repetition that follows, we shall hear the names of poets in great
numbers; if we seek not Blue-book knowledge but the enjoyment of poetry, and
ask for a poem, we shall seldom find it. I have tried to point out the
importance of the relation of the poem to other poems by other authors, and
suggested the conception of poetry as a living whole of all the poetry that has
ever been written. The other aspect of this Impersonal theory of poetry is the
relation of the poem to its author. And I hinted, by an analogy, that the mind
of the mature poet differs from that of the immature one not precisely in any
valuation of “personality,” not being necessarily more interesting, or having
“more to say,” but rather by being a more finely perfected medium in which
special, or very varied, feelings are at liberty to enter into new
combinations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The analogy was that of the catalyst. When
the two gases previously mentioned are mixed in the presence of a filament of
platinum, they form sulphurous acid. This combination takes place only if the
platinum is present; nevertheless the newly formed acid contains no trace of
platinum, and the platinum itself is apparently unaffected; has remained inert,
neutral, and unchanged. The mind of the poet is the shred of platinum. It may
partly or exclusively operate upon the experience of the man himself; but, the
more perfect the artist, the more completely separate in him will be the man
who suffers and the mind which creates; the more perfectly will the mind digest
and transmute the passions which are its material.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The experience, you will
notice, the elements which enter the presence of the transforming catalyst, are
of two kinds: emotions and feelings. The effect of a work of art upon the
person who enjoys it is an experience different in kind from any experience not
of art. It may be formed out of one emotion, or may be a combination of
several; and various feelings, inhering for the writer in particular words or
phrases or images, may be added to compose the final result. Or great poetry
may be made without the direct use of any emotion whatever: composed out of
feelings solely. Canto XV of the <i>Inferno</i> (Brunetto Latini) is
a working up of the emotion evident in the situation; but the effect, though
single as that of any work of art, is obtained by considerable complexity of
detail. The last quatrain gives an image, a feeling attaching to an image,
which “came,” which did not develop simply out of what precedes, but which was
probably in suspension in the poet’s mind until the proper combination arrived
for it to add itself to. The poet’s mind is in fact a receptacle for seizing
and storing up numberless feelings, phrases, images, which remain there until
all the particles which can unite to form a new compound are present together.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If you compare several
representative passages of the greatest poetry you see how great is the variety
of types of combination, and also how completely any semi-ethical criterion of
“sublimity” misses the mark. For it is not the “greatness,” the intensity, of
the emotions, the components, but the intensity of the artistic process, the
pressure, so to speak, under which the fusion takes place, that counts. The
episode of Paolo and Francesca employs a definite emotion, but the intensity of
the poetry is something quite different from whatever intensity in the supposed
experience it may give the impression of. It is no more intense, furthermore,
than Canto XXVI, the voyage of Ulysses, which has not the direct dependence
upon an emotion. Great variety is possible in the process of transmutation of emotion:
the murder of Agamemnon, or the agony of Othello, gives an artistic effect
apparently closer to a possible original than the scenes from Dante. In the<i>Agamemnon</i>,
the artistic emotion approximates to the emotion of an actual spectator; in<i>Othello</i> to
the emotion of the protagonist himself. But the difference between art and the
event is always absolute; the combination which is the murder of Agamemnon is
probably as complex as that which is the voyage of Ulysses. In either case
there has been a fusion of elements. The ode of Keats contains a number of
feelings which have nothing particular to do with the nightingale, but which
the nightingale, partly, perhaps, because of its attractive name, and partly
because of its reputation, served to bring together.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The point of view which I am struggling to
attack is perhaps related to the metaphysical theory of the substantial unity
of the soul: for my meaning is, that the poet has, not a “personality” to
express, but a particular medium, which is only a medium and not a personality,
in which impressions and experiences combine in peculiar and unexpected ways.
Impressions and experiences which are important for the man may take no place
in the poetry, and those which become important in the poetry may play quite a negligible
part in the man, the personality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I will quote a passage which is unfamiliar
enough to be regarded with fresh attention in the light—or darkness—of these
observations:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
now methinks I could e’en chide myself<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>For doating on her beauty, though her death<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>Shall be revenged after no common action.<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>Does the silkworm expend her yellow labours<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>For thee? For thee does she undo herself?<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>Are lordships sold to maintain ladyships<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>For the poor benefit of a bewildering minute?<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>Why does yon fellow falsify highways,<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>And put his life between the judge’s lips,<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>To refine such a thing—keeps horse and men<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span>To beat their valours for her? . . .</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In this passage (as is evident if it is taken
in its context) there is a combination of positive and negative emotions: an intensely
strong attraction toward beauty and an equally intense fascination by the
ugliness which is contrasted with it and which destroys it. This balance of
contrasted emotion is in the dramatic situation to which the speech is
pertinent, but that situation alone is inadequate to it. This is, so to speak,
the structural emotion, provided by the drama. But the whole effect, the
dominant tone, is due to the fact that a number of floating feelings, having an
affinity to this emotion by no means superficially evident, have combined with
it to give us a new art emotion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It is not in his personal emotions, the
emotions provoked by particular events in his life, that the poet is in any way
remarkable or interesting. His particular emotions may be simple, or crude, or
flat. The emotion in his poetry will be a very complex thing, but not with the
complexity of the emotions of people who have very complex or unusual emotions
in life. One error, in fact, of eccentricity in poetry is to seek for new human
emotions to express; and in this search for novelty in the wrong place it
discovers the perverse. The business of the poet is not to find new emotions,
but to use the ordinary ones and, in working them up into poetry, to express
feelings which are not in actual emotions at all. And emotions which he has
never experienced will serve his turn as well as those familiar to him.
Consequently, we must believe that “emotion recollected in tranquillity” is an
inexact formula. For it is neither emotion, nor recollection, nor, without
distortion of meaning, tranquillity. It is a concentration, and a new thing
resulting from the concentration, of a very great number of experiences which
to the practical and active person would not seem to be experiences at all; it
is a concentration which does not happen consciously or of deliberation. These
experiences are not “recollected,” and they finally unite in an atmosphere
which is “tranquil” only in that it is a passive attending upon the event. Of
course this is not quite the whole story. There is a great deal, in the writing
of poetry, which must be conscious and deliberate. In fact, the bad poet is
usually unconscious where he ought to be conscious, and conscious where he
ought to be unconscious. Both errors tend to make him “personal.” Poetry is not
a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the
expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only
those who have personality and emotions know what it means to want to escape
from these things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">III<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">δ δε νους ισως Θειοτερον τι και απαθες εστιν<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
essay proposes to halt at the frontier of metaphysics or mysticism, and confine
itself to such practical conclusions as can be applied by the responsible
person interested in poetry. To divert interest from the poet to the poetry is
a laudable aim: for it would conduce to a juster estimation of actual poetry,
good and bad. There are many people who appreciate the expression of sincere
emotion in verse, and there is a smaller number of people who can appreciate
technical excellence. But very few know when there is an expression of <i>significant</i> emotion,
emotion which has its life in the poem and not in the history of the poet. The
emotion of art is impersonal. And the poet cannot reach this impersonality
without surrendering himself wholly to the work to be done. And he is not
likely to know what is to be done unless he lives in what is not merely the
present, but the present moment of the past, unless he is conscious, not of
what is dead, but of what is already living.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
ART OF FICTION</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
by Henry James<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[Published in <i>Longman's Magazine </i>4
(September 1884), and reprinted in <i>Partial Portraits </i>(Macmillan,
1888); paragraphing and capitalization follow the Library of America
edition.]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I SHOULD not have affixed so comprehensive a title to
these few remarks, necessarily wanting in any completeness, upon a subject the
full consideration of which would carry us far, did I not seem to discover a
pretext for my temerity in the interesting pamphlet lately published under this
name by Mr. Walter Besant. Mr. Besant's lecture at the Royal Institution--the
original form of his pamphlet--appears to indicate that many persons are
interested in the art of fiction and are not indifferent to such remarks as
those who practise it may attempt to make about it. I am therefore anxious not
to lose the benefit of this favourable association, and to edge in a few words
under cover of the attention which Mr. Besant is sure to have excited. There is
something very encouraging in his having put into form certain of his ideas on
the mystery of story-telling. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It is a proof of life and curiosity--curiosity on the
part of the brotherhood of novelists, as well as on the part of their readers.
Only a short time ago it might have been supposed that the English novel was
not what the French call <i>discutable</i>. It had no air of having a
theory, a conviction, a consciousness of itself behind it-of being the
expression of an artistic faith, the result of choice and comparison. I do not
say it was necessarily the worse for that; it would take much more courage than
I possess to intimate that the form of the novel, as Dickens and Thackeray (for
instance) saw it had any taint of incompleteness. It was, however, <i>naïf </i>(if
I may help myself out with another French word); and, evidently, if it is
destined to suffer in any way for having lost its <i>naïveté </i>it
has now an idea of making sure of the corresponding advantages. During the
period I have alluded to there was a comfortable, good-humoured feeling abroad
that a novel is a novel, as a pudding is a pudding, and that this was the end
of it. But within a year or two, for some reason or other, there have been
signs of returning animation-the era of discussion would appear to have been to
a certain extent opened. Art lives upon discussion, upon experiment, upon curiosity,
upon variety of attempt, upon the exchange of views and the comparison of
standpoints; and there is a presumption that those times when no one has
anything particular to say about it, and has no reason to give for practice or
preference, though they may be times of genius, are not times of development,
are times possibly even, a little, of dulness. The successful application of
any art is a delightful spectacle, but the theory, too, is interesting; and
though there is a great deal of the latter without the former, I suspect there
has never been a genuine success that has not had a latent core of conviction.
Discussion, suggestion, formulation, these things are fertilizing when they are
frank and sincere. Mr. Besant has set an excellent example in saying what he
thinks, for his part, about the way in which fiction should be written, as well
as about the way in which it should be published; for his view of the
"art," carried on into an appendix, covers that too. Other labourers
in the same field will doubtless take up the argument, they will give it the
light of their experience, and the effect will surely be to make our interest
in the novel a little more what it had for some time threatened to fail to
be--a serious, active, inquiring interest, under protection of which this
delightful study may, in moments of confidence, venture to say a little more
what it thinks of itself. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It must take itself seriously for the public to take it
so. The old superstition about fiction being "wicked" has doubtless
died out in England; but the spirit of it lingers in a certain oblique regard
directed toward any story which does not more or less admit that it is only a
joke. Even the most jocular novel feels in some degree the weight of the
proscription that was formerly directed against literary levity; the jocularity
does not always succeed in passing for gravity. It is still expected, though
perhaps people are ashamed to say it, that a production which is after all only
a "make believe" (for what else is a "story"?) shall be in
some degree apologetic--shall renounce the pretension of attempting really to
compete with life. This, of course, any sensible wide-awake story declines to
do, for it quickly perceives that the tolerance granted to it on such a
condition is only an attempt to stifle it, disguised in the form of generosity.
The old evangelical hostility to the novel, which was as explicit as it was
narrow, and which regarded it as little less favourable to our immortal part
than a stage-play, was in reality far less insulting. The only reason for the
existence of a novel is that it <i>does</i> compete with life. When
it ceases to compete as the canvas of the painter competes, it will have
arrived at a very strange pass. It is not expected of the picture that it will
make itself humble in order to be forgiven; and the analogy between the art of
the painter and the art of the novelist is, so far as I am able to see,
complete. Their inspiration is the same, their process (allowing for the
different quality of the vehicle) is the same, their success is the same. They
may learn from each other, they may explain and sustain each other. Their cause
is the same, and the honour of one is the honour of another. Peculiarities of
manner, of execution, that correspond on either side, exist in each of them and
contribute to their development. The Mahometans think a picture an unholy
thing, but it is a long time since any Christian did, and it is therefore the
more odd that in the Christian mind the traces (dissimulated though they may
be) of a suspicion of the sister art should linger to this day. The only
effectual way to lay it to rest is to emphasize the analogy to which I just
alluded--to insist on the fact that as the picture is reality, so the novel is
history. That is the only general description (which does it justice) that we
may give the novel. But history also is allowed to compete with life, as I say;
it is not, any more than painting, expected to apologize. The subject-matter of
fiction is stored up likewise in documents and records, and if it will not give
itself away, as they say in California, it must speak with assurance, with the
tone of the historian. Certain accomplished novelists have a habit of giving
themselves away which must often bring tears to the eyes of people who take their
fiction seriously. I was lately struck, in reading over many pages of Anthony
Trollope, with his want of discretion in this particular. In a digression, a
parenthesis or an aside, he concedes to the reader that he and this trusting
friend are only "making believe." He admits that the events he
narrates have not really happened, and that he can give his narrative any turn
the reader may like best. Such a betrayal of a sacred office seems to me, I
confess, a terrible crime; it is what I mean by the attitude of apology, and it
shocks me every whit as much in Trollope as it would have shocked me in Gibbon
or Macaulay. It implies that the novelist is less occupied in looking for the
truth (the truth, of course I mean, that he assumes, the premises that we must
grant him, whatever they may be) than the historian, and in doing so it
deprives him at a stroke of all his standing-room. To represent and illustrate
the past, the actions of men, is the task of either writer, and the only
difference that I can see is, in proportion as he succeeds, to the honour of
the novelist, consisting as it does in his having more difficulty in collecting
his evidence, which is so far from being purely literary. It seems to me to
give him a great character, the fact that he has at once so much in common with
the philosopher and the painter; this double analogy is a magnificent
heritage. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It is of all this evidently that Mr. Besant is full when
he insists upon the fact that fiction is one of the <i>fine</i> arts,
deserving in its turn of all the honours and emoluments that have hitherto been
reserved for the successful profession of music, poetry, painting,
architecture. It is impossible to insist too much on so important a truth, and
the place that Mr. Besant demands for the work of the novelist may be
represented, a trifle less abstractly, by saying that he demands not only that
it shall be reputed artistic, but that it shall be reputed very artistic
indeed. It is excellent that he should have struck this note, for his doing so
indicates that there was need of it, that his proposition may be to many people
a novelty. One rubs one's eyes at the thought; but the rest of Mr. Besant's
essay confirms the revelation. I suspect, in truth, that it would be possible
to confirm it still further, and that one would not be far wrong in saying that
in addition to the people to whom it has never occurred that a novel ought to
be artistic, there are a great many others who, if this principle were urged
upon them, would be filled with an indefinable mistrust. They would find it
difficult to explain their repugnance, but it would operate strongly to put
them on their guard. "Art," in our Protestant communities, where so
many things have got so strangely twisted about, is supposed, in certain circles,
to have some vaguely injurious effect upon those who make it an important
consideration, who let it weigh in the balance. It is assumed to be opposed in
some mysterious manner to morality, to amusement, to instruction. When it is
embodied in the work of the painter (the sculptor is another affair!) you know
what it is; it stands there before you, in the honesty of pink and green and a
gilt frame; you can see the worst of it at a glance, and you can be on your
guard. But when it is introduced into literature it becomes more
insidious--there is danger of its hurting you before you know it. Literature
should be either instructive or amusing, and there is in many minds an
impression that these artistic preoccupations, the search for form, contribute
to neither end, interfere indeed with both. They are too frivolous to be
edifying, and too serious to be diverting; and they are, moreover, priggish and
paradoxical and superfluous. That, I think, represents the manner in which the
latent thought of many people who read novels as an exercise in skipping would
explain itself if it were to become articulate. They would argue, of course,
that a novel ought to be "good," but they would interpret this term
in a fashion of their own, which, indeed would vary considerably from one critic
to another. One would say that being good means representing virtuous and
aspiring characters, placed in prominent positions; another would say that it
depends for a "happy ending" on a distribution at the last of prizes,
pensions, husbands, wives, babies, millions, appended paragraphs and cheerful
remarks. Another still would say that it means being full of incident and
movement, so that we shall wish to jump ahead, to see who was the mysterious
stranger, and if the stolen will was ever found, and shall not be distracted
from this pleasure by any tiresome analysis or "description." But
they would all agree that the "artistic'" idea would spoil some of
their fun. One would hold it accountable for all the description, another would
see it revealed in the absence of sympathy. Its hostility to a happy ending
would be evident, and it might even, in some cases, render any ending at all
impossible. The "ending" of a novel is, for many persons, like that
of a good dinner, a course of dessert and ices, and the artist in fiction is
regarded as a sort of meddlesome doctor who forbids agreeable aftertastes. It
is therefore true that this conception of Mr. Besant's of the novel as a
superior form encounters not only a negative but a positive indifference. It
matters little that, as a work of art, it should really be as little or as much
concerned to supply happy endings, sympathetic characters, and an objective
tone, as if it were a work of mechanics; the association of ideas, however
incongruous, might easily be too much for it if an eloquent voice were not
sometimes raised to call attention to the fact that it is at once as free and
as serious a branch of literature as any other. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Certainly, this might sometimes be doubted in presence of
the enormous number of works of fiction that appeal to the credulity of our
generation, for it might easily seem that there could be no great substance in
a commodity so quickly and easily produced. It must be admitted that good
novels are somewhat compromised by bad ones, and that the field, at large,
suffers discredit from overcrowding. I think, however, that this injury is only
superficial, and that the superabundance of written fiction proves nothing
against the principle itself. It has been vulgarised, like all other kinds of
literature, like everything else, to-day, and it has proved more than some
kinds accessible to vulgarisation. But there is as much difference as there
ever was between a good novel and a bad one: the bad is swept, with all the
daubed canvases and spoiled marble, into some unvisited limbo or infinite
rubbish-yard, beneath the back-windows of the world, and the good subsists and
emits its light and stimulates our desire for perfection. As I shall take the
liberty of making but a single criticism of Mr. Besant, whose tone is so full
of the love of his art, I may as well have done with it at once. He seems to me
to mistake in attempting to say so definitely beforehand what sort of an affair
the good novel will be. To indicate the danger of such an error as that has been
the purpose of these few pages; to suggest that certain traditions on the
subject, applied <i>a priori</i>, have already had much to answer for, and
that the good health of an art which undertakes so immediately to reproduce
life must demand that it be perfectly free. It lives upon exercise, and the
very meaning of exercise is freedom. The only obligation to which in advance we
may hold a novel without incurring the accusation of being arbitrary, is that
it be interesting. That general responsibility rests upon it, but it is the
only one I can think of. The ways in which it is at liberty to accomplish this
result (of interesting us) strike me as innumerable and such as can only suffer
from being marked out, or fenced in, by prescription. They are as various as
the temperament of man, and they are successful in proportion as they reveal a
particular mind, different from others. A novel is in its broadest definition a
personal impression of life; that, to begin with, constitutes its value, which
is greater or less according to the intensity of the impression. But there will
be no intensity at all, and therefore no value, unless there is freedom to feel
and say. The tracing of a line to be followed, of a tone to be taken, of a form
to be filled out, is a limitation of that freedom and a suppression of the very
thing that we are most curious about. The form, it seems to me, is to be
appreciated after the fact; then the author's choice has been made, his
standard has been indicated; then we can follow lines and directions and
compare tones. Then, in a word, we can enjoy one of the most charming of
pleasures, we can estimate quality, we can apply the test of execution. The
execution belongs to the author alone; it is what is most personal to him, and
we measure him by that. The advantage, the luxury, as well as the torment and
responsibility of the novelist, is that there is no limit to what he may
attempt as an executant--no limit to his possible experiments, efforts,
discoveries, successes. Here it is especially that he works, step by step, like
his brother of the brush, of whom we may always say that he has painted his
picture in a manner best known to himself. His manner is his secret, not
necessarily a deliberate one. He cannot disclose it, as a general thing, if he would;
he would be at a loss to teach it to others. I say this with a due recollection
of having insisted on the community of method of the artist who paints a
picture and the artist who writes a novel. The painter <i>is</i> able
to teach the rudiments of his practice, and it is possible, from the study of
good work (granted the aptitude), both to learn how to paint and to learn how
to write. Yet it remains true, without injury to the <i>rapprochement</i>,
that the literary artist would be obliged to say to his pupil much more than
the other, "Ah, well, you must do it as you can!" It is a question of
degree, a matter of delicacy. If there are exact sciences there are also exact
arts, and the grammar of painting is so much more definite that it makes the
difference. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I ought to add, however, that if Mr. Besant says at the
beginning of his essay that the "laws of fiction may be laid down and
taught with as much precision and exactness as the laws of harmony,
perspective, and proportion," he mitigates what might appear to be an
over-statement by applying his remark to "general" laws, and by
expressing most of these rules in a manner with which it would certainly be
unaccommodating to disagree. That the novelist must write from his experience,
that his "characters must be real and such as might be met with in actual
life;" that "a young lady brought up in a quiet country village
should avoid descriptions of garrison life," and "a writer whose
friends and personal experiences belong to the lower middle-class should
carefully avoid introducing his characters into Society;" that one should
enter one's notes in a common-place book; that one's figures should be clear in
outline; that making them clear by some trick of speech or of carriage is a bad
method, and "describing them at length" is a worse one; that English
Fiction should have a "conscious moral purpose;" that "it is
almost impossible to estimate too highly the value of careful workmanship-that
is, of style;" that "the most important point of all is the
story," that "the story is everything"--these are principles
with most of which it is surely impossible not to sympathise. That remark about
the lower middle-class writer and his knowing his place is perhaps rather
chilling; but for the rest, I should find it difficult to dissent from any one
of these recommendations. At the same time I should find it difficult
positively to assent to them, with the exception, perhaps, of the injunction as
to entering one's notes in a common-place book. They scarcely seem to me to
have the quality that Mr. Besant attributes to the rules of the novelist--the
"precision and exactness" of "the laws of harmony, perspective,
and proportion." They are suggestive, they are even inspiring, but they
are not exact, though they are doubtless as much so as the case admits of;
which is a proof of that liberty of interpretation for which I just contended.
For the value of these different injunctions--so beautiful and so vague--is
wholly in the meaning one attaches to them. The characters, the situation,
which strike one as real will be those that touch and interest one most, but
the measure of reality is very difficult to fix. The reality of Don Quixote or
of Mr. Micawber is a very delicate shade; it is a reality so coloured by the
author's vision that, vivid as it may be, one would hesitate to propose it as a
model; one would expose one's self to some very embarrassing questions on the
part of a pupil. It goes without saying that you will not write a good novel
unless you possess the sense of reality; but it will be difficult to give you a
recipe for calling that sense into being. Humanity is immense and reality has a
myriad forms; the most one can affirm is that some of the flowers of fiction
have the odour of it, and others have not; as for telling you in advance how
your nosegay should be composed, that is another affair. It is equally
excellent and inconclusive to say that one must write from experience; to our
supposititious aspirant such a declaration might savour of mockery. What kind
of experience is intended, and where does it begin and end? Experience is never
limited and it is never complete; it is an immense sensibility, a kind of huge
spider-web, of the finest silken threads, suspended in the chamber of
consciousness and catching every air-borne particle in its tissue. It is the
very atmosphere of the mind; and when the mind is imaginative--much more when
it happens to be that of a man of genius--it takes to itself the faintest hints
of life, it converts the very pulses of the air into revelations. The young
lady living in a village has only to be a damsel upon whom nothing is lost to
make it quite unfair (as it seems to me) to declare to her that she shall have
nothing to say about the military. Greater miracles have been seen than that,
imagination assisting, she should speak the truth about some of these
gentlemen. I remember an English novelist, a woman of genius, telling me that
she was much commended for the impression she had managed to give in one of her
tales of the nature and way of life of the French Protestant youth. She had
been asked where she learned so much about this recondite being, she had been
congratulated on her peculiar opportunities. These opportunities consisted in
her having once, in Paris, as she ascended a staircase, passed an open door
where, in the household of a <i>pasteur</i>, some of the young Protestants
were seated at table round a finished meal. The glimpse made a picture; it
lasted only a moment, but that moment was experience. She had got her
impression, and she evolved her type. She knew what youth was, and what Protestantism;
she also had the advantage of having seen what it was to be French; so that she
converted these ideas into a concrete image and produced a reality. Above all,
however, she was blessed with the faculty which when you give it an inch takes
an ell, and which for the artist is a much greater source of strength than any
accident of residence or of place in the social scale. The power to guess the
unseen from the seen, to trace the implication of things, to judge the whole
piece by the pattern, the condition of feeling life, in general, so completely
that you are well on your way to knowing any particular corner of it--this
cluster of gifts may almost be said to constitute experience, and they occur in
country and in town, and in the most differing stages of education. If
experience consists of impressions, it may be said that impressions are
experience, just as (have we not seen it?) they are the very air we breathe.
Therefore, if I should certainly say to a novice, "Write from experience,
and experience only," I should feel that this was a rather tantalising
monition if I were not careful immediately to add, "Try to be one of the
people on whom nothing is lost!" <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I am far from intending by this to minimise the
importance of exactness-of truth of detail. One can speak best from one's own
taste, and I may therefore venture to say that the air of reality (solidity of
specification) seems to me to be the supreme virtue of a novel--the merit on
which all its other merits (including that conscious moral purpose of which Mr.
Besant speaks) helplessly and submissively depend. If it be not there, they are
all as nothing, and if these be there, they owe their effect to the success
with which the author has produced the illusion of life. The cultivation of
this success, the study of this exquisite process, form, to my taste, the
beginning and the end of the art of the novelist. They are his inspiration, his
despair, his reward, his torment, his delight. It is here, in very truth, that
he competes with life; it is here that he competes with his brother the painter
in <i>his</i>attempt to render the look of things, the look that conveys
their meaning, to catch the colour, the relief, the expression, the surface,
the substance of the human spectacle. It is in regard to this that Mr. Besant
is well inspired when he bids him take notes. He cannot possibly take too many,
he cannot possibly take enough. All life solicits him, and to
"render" the simplest surface, to produce the most momentary
illusion, is a very complicated business. His case would be easier, and the
rule would be more exact, if Mr. Besant had been able to tell him what notes to
take. But this I fear he can never learn in any hand-book; it is the business
of his life. He has to take a great many in order to select a few, he has to
work them up as he can, and even the guides and philosophers who might have
most to say to him must leave him alone when it comes to the application of
precepts, as we leave the painter in communion with his palette. That his
characters "must be clear in outline," as Mr. Besant says--he feels
that down to his boots; but how he shall make them so is a secret between his
good angel and himself. It would be absurdly simple if he could be taught that
a great deal of "description" would make them so, or that, on the
contrary, the absence of description and the cultivation of dialogue, or the
absence of dialogue and the multiplication of "incident," would
rescue him from his difficulties. Nothing, for instance, is more possible than
that he be of a turn of mind for which this odd, literal opposition of
description and dialogue, incident and description, has little meaning and
light. People often talk of these things as if they had a kind of internecine
distinctness, instead of melting into each other at every breath and being
intimately associated parts of one general effort of expression. I cannot
imagine composition existing in a series of blocks, nor conceive, in any novel
worth discussing at all, of a passage of description that is not in its intention
narrative, a passage of dialogue that is not in its intention descriptive, a
touch of truth of any sort that does not partake of the nature of incident, and
an incident that derives its interest from any other source than the general
and only source of the success of a work of art-that of being illustrative. A
novel is a living thing, all one and continuous, like every other organism, and
in proportion as it lives will it be found, I think, that in each of the parts
there is something of each of the other parts. The critic who over the close
texture of a finished work will pretend to trace a geography of items will mark
some frontiers as artificial, I fear, as any that have been known to history.
There is an old-fashioned distinction between the novel of character and the
novel of incident, which must have cost many a smile to the intending romancer
who was keen about his work. It appears to me as little to the point as the
equally celebrated distinction between the novel and the romance- to answer as
little to any reality. There are bad novels and good novels, as there are bad
pictures and good pictures; but that is the only distinction in which I see any
meaning, and I can as little imagine speaking of a novel of character as I can
imagine speaking of a picture of character. When one says picture, one says of
character, when one says novel, one says of incident, and the terms may be
transposed. What is character but the determination of incident? What is
incident but the illustration of character? What is a picture or a novel that
is not of character? What else do we seek in it and find in it? It is an
incident for a woman to stand up with her hand resting on a table and look out
at you in a certain way; or if it be not an incident, I think it will be hard to
say what it is. At the same time it is an expression of character. If you say
you don't see it (character in <i>that</i>-<i>allons donc!</i>) this is
exactly what the artist who has reasons of his own for thinking he <i>does</i> see
it undertakes to show you. When a young man makes up his mind that he has not
faith enough, after all, to enter the Church, as he intended, that is an
incident, though you may not hurry to the end of the chapter to see whether
perhaps he doesn't change once more. I do not say that these are extraordinary
or startling incidents. I do not pretend to estimate the degree of interest
proceeding from them, for this will depend upon the skill of the painter. It
sounds almost puerile to say that some incidents are intrinsically much more
important than others, and I need not take this precaution after having
professed my sympathy for the major ones in remarking that the only
classification of the novel that I can understand is into the interesting and
the uninteresting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The novel and the romance, the novel of incident and that
of character--these separations appear to me to have been made by critics and
readers for their own convenience, and to help them out of some of their
difficulties, but to have little reality or interest for the producer, from
whose point of view it is, of course, that we are attempting to consider the
art of fiction. The case is the same with another shadowy category, which Mr.
Besant apparently is disposed to set up-that of the "modern English
novel;" unless, indeed, it be that in this matter he has fallen into an
accidental confusion of standpoints. It is not quite clear whether he intends
the remarks in which he alludes to it to be didactic or historical. It is as
difficult to suppose a person intending to write a modern English, as to
suppose him writing an ancient English, novel; that is a label which begs the
question. One writes the novel, one paints the picture, of one's language and
of one's time, and calling it modern English will not, alas! make the difficult
task any easier. No more, unfortunately, will calling this or that work of
one's fellow artist a romance-unless it be, of course, simply for the
pleasantness of the thing, as, for instance, when Hawthorne gave this heading
to his story of Blithedale. The French, who have brought the theory of fiction
to remarkable completeness, have but one word for the novel, and have not
attempted smaller things in it, that I can see, for that. I can think of no
obligation to which the 'romancer' would not be held equally with the novelist;
the standard of execution is equally high for each. Of course it is of
execution that we are talking-that being the only point of a novel that is open
to contention. This is perhaps too often lost sight of, only to produce
interminable confusions and cross-purposes. We must grant the artist his
subject, his idea, what the French call his <i>donnée</i>; our criticism
is applied only to what he makes of it. Naturally I do not mean that we are
bound to like it or find it interesting: in case we do not our course is
perfectly simple--to let it alone. We may believe that of a certain idea even
the most sincere novelist can make nothing at all, and the event may perfectly
justify our belief; but the failure will have been a failure to execute, and it
is in the execution that the fatal weakness is recorded. If we pretend to
respect the artist at all we must allow him his freedom of choice, in the face,
in particular cases, of innumerable presumptions that the choice will not
fructify. Art derives a considerable part of its beneficial exercise from
flying in the face of presumptions, and some of the most interesting
experiments of which it is capable are hidden in the bosom of common things.
Gustave Flaubert has written a story about the devotion of a servant-girl to a
parrot, and the production, highly finished as it is, cannot on the whole be
called a success. We are perfectly free to find it flat, but I think it might
have been interesting; and I, for my part, am extremely glad he should have
written it; it is a contribution to our knowledge of what can be done or what
cannot. Ivan Turgénieff has written a tale about a deaf and dumb serf and a
lap-dog, and the thing is touching, loving, a little masterpiece. He struck the
note of life where Gustave Flaubert missed it-he flew in the face of a
presumption and achieved a victory. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nothing, of course, will ever take the place of the good
old fashion of "liking" a work of art or not liking it; the more
improved criticism will not abolish that primitive, that ultimate, test. I
mention this to guard myself from the accusation of intimating that the idea,
the subject, of a novel or a picture, does not matter. It matters, to my sense,
in the highest degree, and if I might put up a prayer it would be that artists
should select none but the richest. Some, as I have already hastened to admit,
are much more substantial than others , and it would be a happily arranged
world in which persons intending to treat them should be exempt from confusions
and mistakes. This fortunate condition will arrive only, I fear, on the same
day that critics become purged from error. Meanwhile, I repeat, we do not judge
the artist with fairness unless we say to him, "Oh, I grant you your
starting point, because if I did not I should seem to prescribe to you, and
heaven forbid I should take that responsibility. If I pretend to tell you what
you must not take, you will call upon me to tell you then what you must take;
in which case I shall be nicely caught! Moreover, it isn't till I have accepted
your data that I can begin to measure you. I have the standard; I judge you by
what you propose, and you must look out for me there. Of course I may not care
for your idea at all; I may think it silly, or stale, or unclean; in which case
I wash my hands of you altogether. I may content myself with believing that you
will not have succeeded in being interesting, but I shall of course not attempt
to demonstrate it, and you will be as indifferent to me as I am to you. I
needn't remind you that there are all sorts of tastes: who can know it better?
Some people, for excellent reasons, don't like to read about carpenters;
others, for reasons even better, don't like to read about courtesans. Many
object to Americans. Others (I believe they are mainly editors and publishers)
won't look at Italians. Some readers don't like quiet subjects; others don't
like bustling ones. Some enjoy a complete illusion; others revel in a complete
deception. They choose their novels accordingly, and if they don't care about
your idea they won't, <i>afortiori, </i>care about your
treatment."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">So that it comes back very quickly, as I have said, to
the liking; in spite of M. Zola, who reasons less powerfully than he
represents, and who will not reconcile himself to this absoluteness of taste,
thinking that there are certain things that people ought to like, and that they
can be made to like. I am quite at a loss to imagine anything (at any rate in
this matter of fiction) that people <i>ought </i>to like or to
dislike. Selection will be sure to take care of itself, for it has a constant
motive behind it. That motive is simply experience. As people feel life, so
they will feel the art that is most closely related to it. This closeness of
relation is what we should never forget in talking of the effort of the novel.
Many people speak of it as a factitious, artificial form, a product of
ingenuity, the business of which is to alter and arrange the things that
surround us, to translate them into conventional, traditional moulds. This,
however, is a view of the matter which carries us but a very short way,
condemns the art to an eternal repetition of a few familiar <i>clichés, </i>cuts
short its development, and leads us straight up to a dead wall. Catching the
very note and trick, the strange irregular rhythm of life, that is the attempt
whose strenuous force keeps Fiction upon her feet. In proportion as in what she
offers us we see life <i>without </i>rearrangement do we feel that we
are touching the truth; in proportion as we see it <i>with </i>rearrangement
do we feel that we are being put off with a substitute, a compromise and
convention. It is not uncommon to hear an extraordinary assurance of remark in
regard to this matter of rearranging, which is often spoken of as if it were the last word of art. Mr. Besant
seems to me in danger of falling into this great error with his rather
unguarded talk about "selection." Art is essentially selection, but
it is a selection whose main care is to be typical, to be inclusive. For many
people art means rose-coloured windows, and selection means picking a bouquet
for Mrs. Grundy. They will tell you glibly that artistic considerations have
nothing to do with the disagreeable, with the ugly; they will rattle off
shallow commonplaces about the province of art and the limits of art, till you
are moved to some wonder in return as to the province and the limits of
ignorance. It appears to me that no one can ever have made a seriously artistic
attempt without becoming conscious of an immense increase--a kind of
revelation--of freedom. One perceives, in that case-by the light of a heavenly
ray-that the province of art is all life, all feeling, all observation, all
vision. As Mr. Besant so justly intimates, it is all experience. That is a
sufficient answer to those who maintain that it must not touch the painful, who
stick into its divine unconscious bosom little prohibitory inscriptions on the
end of sticks, such as we see in public gardens--"It is forbidden to walk
on the grass; it is forbidden to touch the flowers; it is not allowed to
introduce dogs, or to remain after dark; it is requested to keep to the
right." The young aspirant in the line of fiction, whom we continue to
imagine, will do nothing without taste, for in that case his freedom would be
of little use to him; but the first advantage of his taste will be to reveal to
him the absurdity of the little sticks and tickets. If he have taste, I must
add, of course he will have ingenuity, and my disrespectful reference to that
quality just now was not meant to imply that it is useless in fiction. But it
is only a secondary aid; the first is a vivid sense of reality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Besant has some remarks on the question of "the
story," which I shall not attempt to criticise, though they seem to me to
contain a singular ambiguity, because I do not think I understand them. I cannot
see what is meant by talking as if there were a part of a novel which is the
story and part of it which for mystical reasons is not--unless indeed the
distinction be made in a sense in which it is difficult to suppose that anyone
should attempt to convey anything. "The story," if it represents
anything, represents the subject, the idea, the data of the novel; and there is
surely no "school"--Mr. Besant speaks of a school--which urges that a
novel should be all treatment and no subject. There must assuredly be something
to treat; every school is intimately conscious of that. This sense of the story
being the idea, the starting-point, of the novel is the only one that I see in
which it can be spoken of as something different from its organic whole; and since,
in proportion as the work is successful, the idea permeates and penetrates it,
informs and animates it, so that every word and every punctuation-point
contribute directly to the expression, in that proportion do we lose our sense
of the story being a blade which may be drawn more or less out of its sheath.
The story and the novel, the idea and the form, are the needle and thread, and
I never heard of a guild of tailors who recommended the use of the thread
without the needle or the needle without the thread. Mr. Besant is not the only
critic who may be observed to have spoken as if there were certain things in
life which constitute stories and certain others which do not. I find the same
odd implication in an entertaining article in the <i>Pall Mall Gazette, </i>devoted,
as it happens, to Mr. Besant's lecture. "The story is the thing!"
says this graceful writer, as if with a tone of opposition to another idea. I
should think it was, as every painter who, as the time for 'sending in' his
picture looms in the distance, finds himself still in quest of a subject-as
every belated artist, not fixed about his <i>donnée, </i>will
heartily agree. There are some subjects which speak to us and others which do
not, but he would be a clever man who should undertake to give a rule by which
the story and the no-story should be known apart. It is impossible (to me at
least) to imagine any such rule which shall not be altogether arbitrary. The
writer in the <i>Pall Mall </i>opposes the delightful (as I suppose)
novel of <i>Margot la Balafrée </i>to certain tales in which
"Bostonian nymphs" appear to have "rejected English dukes for
psychological reasons." I am not acquainted with the romance just
designated, and can scarcely forgive the <i>Pall Mall </i>critic for
not mentioning the name of the author, but the title appears to refer to a lady
who may have received a scar in some heroic adventure. I am inconsolable at not
being acquainted with this episode, but am utterly at a loss to see why it is a
story when the rejection (or acceptance) of a duke is not, and why a reason,
psychological or other, is not a subject when a cicatrix is. They are all
particles of the multitudinous life with which the novel deals, and surely no
dogma which pretends to make it lawful to touch the one and unlawful to touch
the other will stand for a moment on its feet. It is the special picture that
must stand or fall, according as it seems to possess truth or to lack it. Mr.
Besant does not, to my sense, light up the subject by intimating that a story
must, under penalty of not being a story, consist of "adventures."
Why of adventures more than of green spectacles? He mentions a category of
impossible things, and among them he places "fiction without
adventure." Why without adventure, more than without matrimony, or
celibacy, or parturition, or cholera, or hydropathy, or Jansenism? This seems
to me to bring the novel back to the hapless little <i>rôle </i>of
being an artificial, ingenious thing-bring it down from its large, free
character of an immense and exquisite correspondence with life. And what <i>is</i> adventure,
when it comes to that, and by what sign is the listening pupil to recognise it?
It is an adventure--an immense one--for me to write this little article; and
for a Bostonian nymph to reject an English duke is an adventure only less stirring,
I should say, than for an English duke to be rejected by a Bostonian nymph. I
see dramas within dramas in that, and innumerable points of view. A
psychological reason is, to my imagination, an object adorably pictorial; to
catch the tint of its complexion-I feel as if that idea might inspire one to
Titianesque efforts. There are few things more exciting to me, in short, than a
psychological reason, and yet, I protest, the novel seems to me the most
magnificent form of art. I have just been reading, at the same time, the
delightful story of <i>Treasure Island, </i>by Mr. Robert Louis
Stevenson, and the last tale from M. Edmond de Goncourt, which is
entitled <i>Chérie. </i>One of these works treats of murders,
mysteries, islands of dreadful renown, hairbreadth escapes, miraculous
coincidences and buried doubloons. The other treats of a little French girl who
lived in a fine house in Paris and died of wounded sensibility because no one
would marry her. I call <i>Treasure Island </i>delightful, because it
appears to me to have succeeded wonderfully in what it attempts; and I venture
to bestow no epithet upon <i>Chérie, </i>which strikes me as having
failed in what it attempts-that is, in tracing the development of the moral
consciousness of a child. But one of these productions strikes me as exactly as
much of a novel as the other, and as having a 'story' quite as much. The moral
consciousness of a child is as much a part of life as the islands of the
Spanish Main, and the one sort of geography seems to me to have those
'surprises' of which Mr. Besant speaks quite as much as the other. For myself
(since it comes back in the last resort, as I say, to the preference of the
individual), the picture of the child's experience has the advantage that I can
at successive steps (an immense luxury, near to the 'sensual pleasure' of which
Mr. Besant's critic in the <i>Pall Mall </i>speaks) say Yes or No, as
it may be, to what the artist puts before me. I have been a child, but I have
never been on a quest for a buried treasure, and it is a simple accident that
with M. de Goncourt I should have for the most part to say No. With George
Eliot, when she painted that country, I always said Yes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The most interesting part of Mr. Besant's lecture is
unfortunately the briefest passage--his very cursory allusion to the
"conscious moral purpose" of the novel. Here again it is not very
clear whether he is recording a fact or laying down a principle; it is a great
pity that in the latter case he should not have developed his idea. This branch
of the subject is of immense importance, and Mr. Besant's few words point to
considerations of the widest reach, not to be lightly disposed of. He will have
treated the art of fiction but superficially who is not prepared to go every
inch of the way that these considerations will carry him. It is for this reason
that at the beginning of these remarks I was careful to notify the reader that
my reflections on so large a theme have no pretension to be exhaustive. Like
Mr. Besant, I have left the question of the morality of the novel till the
last, and at the last I find I have used up my space. It is a question
surrounded with difficulties, as witness the very first that meets us, in the
form of a definite question, on the threshold. Vagueness, in such a discussion,
is fatal, and what is the meaning of your morality and your conscious moral
purpose? Will you not define your terms and explain how (a novel being a
picture) a picture can be either moral or immoral? You wish to paint a moral
picture or carve a moral statue; will you not tell us how you would set about
it? We are discussing the Art of Fiction; questions of art are questions (in
the widest sense) of execution; questions of morality are quite another affair,
and will you not let us see how it is that you find it so easy to mix them up?
These things are so clear to Mr. Besant that he has deduced from them a law
which he sees embodied in English Fiction and which is "a truly admirable
thing and a great cause for congratulation." It is a great cause for
congratulation, indeed, when such thorny problems become as smooth as silk. I
may add that, in so far as Mr. Besant perceives that in point of fact English
Fiction has addressed itself preponderantly to these delicate questions, he
will appear to many people to have made a vain discovery. They will have been
positively struck, on the contrary, with the moral timidity of the usual
English novelist; with his (or with her) aversion to face the difficulties with
which, on every side, the treatment of reality bristles. He is apt to be extremely
shy (whereas the picture that Mr. Besant draws is a picture of boldness), and
the sign of his work, for the most part, is a cautious silence on certain
subjects. In the English novel (by which I mean the American as well), more
than in any other, there is a traditional difference between that which people
know and that which they agree to admit that they know, that which they see and
that which they speak of, that which they feel to be a part of life and that
which they allow to enter into literature. There is the great difference, in
short, between what they talk of in conversation and what they talk of in
print. The essence of moral energy is to survey the whole field, and I should
directly reverse Mr. Besant's remark, and say not that the English novel has a
purpose, but that it has a diffidence. To what degree a purpose in a work of
art is a source of corruption I shall not attempt to inquire; the one that
seems to me least dangerous is the purpose of making a perfect work. As for our
novel, I may say, lastly, on this score, that, as we find it in England to-day,
it strikes me as addressed in a large degree to "young people," and
that this in itself constitutes a presumption that it will be rather shy. There
are certain things which it is generally agreed not to discuss, not even to
mention, before young people. That is very well, but the absence of discussion
is not a symptom of the moral passion. The purpose of the English
novel--"a truly admirable thing, and a great cause for congratulation"--strikes
me, therefore, as rather negative.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There is one point at which the moral sense and the
artistic sense lie very near together; that is, in the light of the very
obvious truth that the deepest quality of a work of art will always be the
quality of the mind of the producer. In proportion as that mind is rich and
noble will the novel, the picture, the statue, partake of the substance of
beauty and truth. To be constituted of such elements is, to my vision, to have
purpose enough. No good novel will ever proceed from a superficial mind; that
seems to me an axiom which, for the artist in fiction, will cover all needful
moral ground; if the youthful aspirant take it to heart it will illuminate for
him many of the mysteries of "purpose." There are many other useful
things that might be said to him, but I have come to the end of my article, and
can only touch them as I pass. The critic in the <i>Pall Mall
Gazette, </i>whom I have already quoted, draws attention to the danger, in
speaking of the art of fiction, of generalizing. The danger that he has in mind
is rather, I imagine, that of particularizing, for there are some comprehensive
remarks which, in addition to those embodied in Mr. Besant's suggestive
lecture, might, without fear of misleading him, be addressed to the ingenuous
student. I should remind him first of the magnificence of the form that is open
to him, which offers to sight so few restrictions and such innumerable
opportunities. The other arts, in comparison, appear confined and hampered; the
various conditions under which they are exercised are so rigid and definite.
But the only condition that I can think of attaching to the composition of the
novel is, as I have already said, that it be interesting. This freedom is a
splendid privilege, and the first lesson of the young novelist is to learn to
be worthy of it. "Enjoy it as it deserves," I should say to him;
"take possession of it, explore it to its utmost extent, reveal it,
rejoice in it. All life belongs to you, and don't listen either to those who
would shut you up into corners of it and tell you that it is only here and
there that art inhabits, or to those who would persuade you that this heavenly
messenger wings her way outside of life altogether, breathing a superfine air
and turning away her head from the truth of things. There is no impression of
life, no manner of seeing it and feeling it, to which the plan of the novelist
may not offer a place; you have only to remember that talents so dissimilar as
those of Alexandre Dumas and Jane Austen, Charles Dickens and Gustave Flaubert,
have worked in this field with equal glory. Don't think too much about optimism
and pessimism; try and catch the colour of life itself. In France to-day we see
a prodigious effort (that of Emile Zola, to whose solid and serious work no
explorer of the capacity of the novel can allude without respect), we see an
extraordinary effort vitiated by a spirit of pessimism on a narrow basis. M.
Zola is magnificent, but he strikes an English reader as ignorant; he has an
air of working in the dark; if he had as much light as energy his results would
be of the highest value. As for the aberrations of a shallow optimism, the
ground (of English fiction especially) is strewn with their brittle particles
as with broken glass. If you must indulge in conclusions let them have the
taste of a wide knowledge. Remember that your first duty is to be as complete
as possible-to make as perfect a work. Be generous and delicate, and then, in
the vulgar phrase, go in!"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit- 3: Poetry<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Wreck of the Deutschland<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">BY </span></b><a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/gerard-manley-hopkins"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .3pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-transform: uppercase; text-underline: none;">GERARD MANLEY HOPKINS</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
the happy memory of five Franciscan Nuns, exiles by the Falk Laws, drowned
between midnight and morning of Dec. 7th, 1875<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</div>
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</span>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou mastering me <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">God! giver of breath and
bread; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">World's strand, sway of the
sea; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lord of living and
dead; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou hast bound bones &
veins in me, fastened me flesh, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And after it almost unmade,
what with dread, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy doing: and dost thou
touch me afresh? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Over again I feel thy
finger and find thee. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I did say yes <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">O at lightning and lashed
rod; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou heardst me truer than
tongue confess <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy terror, O Christ, O
God; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou knowest the walls,
altar and hour and night: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The swoon of a heart that
the sweep and the hurl of thee trod <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hard down with a horror of
height: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And the midriff astrain
with leaning of, laced with fire of stress. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The frown of his face <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Before me, the hurtle of
hell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Behind, where, where was a,
where was a place? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I whirled out wings that
spell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And fled with a fling of
the heart to the heart of the Host. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">My heart, but you were
dovewinged, I can tell, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Carrier-witted, I am bold
to boast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To flash from the flame to
the flame then, tower from the grace to the grace. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I am soft sift <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In an hourglass—at the
wall <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fast, but mined with a
motion, a drift, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And it crowds and it combs
to the fall; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I steady as a water in a
well, to a poise, to a pane, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But roped with, always, all
the way down from the tall <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fells or flanks of the
voel, a vein <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of the gospel proffer, a
pressure, a principle, Christ's gift. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I kiss my hand <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To the stars,
lovely-asunder <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Starlight, wafting him out
of it; and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Glow, glory in
thunder; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kiss my hand to the
dappled-with-damson west: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Since, tho' he is under the
world's splendour and wonder, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">His mystery must be
instressed, stressed; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For I greet him the days I
meet him, and bless when I understand. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Not out of his bliss <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Springs the stress
felt <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor first from heaven (and
few know this) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Swings the stroke
dealt— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stroke and a stress that
stars and storms deliver, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That guilt is hushed by,
hearts are flushed by and melt— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But it rides time like
riding a river <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(And here the faithful
waver, the faithless fable and miss). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It dates from day <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of his going in
Galilee; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Warm-laid grave of a
womb-life grey; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Manger, maiden's
knee; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The dense and the driven
Passion, and frightful sweat; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thence the discharge of it,
there its swelling to be, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Though felt before, though
in high flood yet— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What none would have known
of it, only the heart, being hard at bay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Is out with it! Oh, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">We lash with the best or
worst <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Word last! How a lush-kept
plush-capped sloe <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Will, mouthed to
flesh-burst, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Gush!—flush the man, the
being with it, sour or sweet, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Brim, in a flash,
full!—Hither then, last or first, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To hero of Calvary,
Christ,'s feet— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Never ask if meaning it,
wanting it, warned of it—men go. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Be adored among men, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">God, three-numberéd
form; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wring thy rebel, dogged in
den, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Man's malice, with wrecking
and storm. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Beyond saying sweet, past
telling of tongue, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou art lightning and
love, I found it, a winter and warm; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Father and fondler of heart
thou hast wrung: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hast thy dark descending
and most art merciful then. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With an anvil-ding <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And with fire in him forge
thy will <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Or rather, rather then,
stealing as Spring <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Through him, melt him but
master him still: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Whether at once, as once at
a crash Paul, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Or as Austin, a
lingering-out swéet skíll, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Make mercy in all of us,
out of us all <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mastery, but be adored, but
be adored King. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">II <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Some find me a sword;
some <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The flange and the rail;
flame, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fang, or flood" goes
Death on drum, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And storms bugle his
fame. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But wé dréam we are rooted
in earth—Dust! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Flesh falls within sight of
us, we, though our flower the same, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wave with the meadow,
forget that there must <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The sour scythe cringe, and
the blear share come. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On Saturday sailed from
Bremen, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">American-outward-bound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Take settler and seamen,
tell men with women, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Two hundred souls in the
round— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">O Father, not under thy
feathers nor ever as guessing <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The goal was a shoal, of a
fourth the doom to be drowned; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet did the dark side of
the bay of thy blessing <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Not vault them, the million
of rounds of thy mercy not reeve even them in? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Into the snows she
sweeps, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hurling the haven
behind, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Deutschland, on Sunday;
and so the sky keeps, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For the infinite air is
unkind, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And the sea flint-flake,
black-backed in the regular blow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sitting Eastnortheast, in
cursed quarter, the wind; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wiry and white-fiery and
whirlwind-swivellèd snow <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Spins to the widow-making
unchilding unfathering deeps. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She drove in the dark to
leeward, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She struck—not a reef or a
rock <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But the combs of a smother
of sand: night drew her <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dead to the Kentish
Knock; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And she beat the bank down
with her bows and the ride of her keel: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The breakers rolled on her
beam with ruinous shock; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And canvass and compass,
the whorl and the wheel <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Idle for ever to waft her
or wind her with, these she endured. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hope had grown grey
hairs, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hope had mourning on, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Trenched with tears, carved
with cares, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hope was twelve hours
gone; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And frightful a nightfall
folded rueful a day <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor rescue, only rocket and
lightship, shone, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And lives at last were
washing away: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To the shrouds they
took,—they shook in the hurling and horrible airs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One stirred from the
rigging to save <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The wild woman-kind
below, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With a rope's end round the
man, handy and brave— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He was pitched to his death
at a blow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For all his dreadnought
breast and braids of thew: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They could tell him for
hours, dandled the to and fro <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Through the cobbled
foam-fleece, what could he do <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With the burl of the
fountains of air, buck and the flood of the wave? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They fought with God's
cold— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And they could not and fell
to the deck <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(Crushed them) or water
(and drowned them) or rolled <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With the sea-romp over the
wreck. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Night roared, with the
heart-break hearing a heart-broke rabble, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The woman's wailing, the
crying of child without check— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Till a lioness arose
breasting the babble, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A prophetess towered in the
tumult, a virginal tongue told. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ah, touched in your bower
of bone <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Are you! turned for an
exquisite smart, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Have you! make words break
from me here all alone, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Do you!—mother of being in
me, heart. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">O unteachably after evil,
but uttering truth, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Why, tears! is it? tears;
such a melting, a madrigal start! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Never-eldering revel and
river of youth, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What can it be, this glee?
the good you have there of your own? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sister, a sister
calling <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A master, her master and
mine!— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And the inboard seas run
swirling and hawling; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The rash smart sloggering
brine <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Blinds her; but she that
weather sees one thing, one; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Has one fetch in her: she
rears herself to divine <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ears, and the call of the
tall nun <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To the men in the tops and
the tackle rode over the storm's brawling. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She was first of a five and
came <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of a coifèd
sisterhood. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(O Deutschland, double a
desperate name! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">O world wide of its
good! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But Gertrude, lily, and
Luther, are two of a town, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Christ's lily and beast of
the waste wood: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">From life's dawn it is
drawn down, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Abel is Cain's brother and
breasts they have sucked the same.) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Loathed for a love men knew
in them, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Banned by the land of their
birth, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Rhine refused them, Thames
would ruin them; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Surf, snow, river and
earth <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Gnashed: but thou art
above, thou Orion of light; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy unchancelling poising
palms were weighing the worth, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou martyr-master: in thy
sight <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Storm flakes were
scroll-leaved flowers, lily showers—sweet heaven was astrew in them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Five! the finding and
sake <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And cipher of suffering
Christ. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mark, the mark is of man's
make <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And the word of it
Sacrificed. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But he scores it in scarlet
himself on his own bespoken, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Before-time-taken, dearest
prizèd and priced— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stigma, signal, cinquefoil
token <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For lettering of the lamb's
fleece, ruddying of the rose-flake. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Joy fall to thee, father
Francis, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Drawn to the Life that
died; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With the gnarls of the
nails in thee, niche of the lance, his <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lovescape crucified <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And seal of his
seraph-arrival! and these thy daughters <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And five-livèd and leavèd
favour and pride, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Are sisterly sealed in wild
waters, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To bathe in his fall-gold
mercies, to breathe in his all-fire glances. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Away in the loveable
west, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On a pastoral forehead of
Wales, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I was under a roof here, I
was at rest, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And they the prey of the
gales; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She to the black-about air,
to the breaker, the thickly <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Falling flakes, to the
throng that catches and quails <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Was calling "O Christ,
Christ, come quickly": <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The cross to her she calls
Christ to her, christens her wildworst Best. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The majesty! what did she
mean? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Breathe, arch and original
Breath. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Is it love in her of the
being as her lover had been? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Breathe, body of lovely
Death. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They were else-minded then,
altogether, the men <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Woke thee with a we
are perishing in the weather of Gennesareth.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Or ís it that she cried for
the crown then, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The keener to come at the
comfort for feeling the combating keen? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For how to the heart's
cheering <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The down-dugged
ground-hugged grey <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hovers off, the jay-blue
heavens appearing <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of pied and peeled
May! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Blue-beating and hoary-glow
height; or night, still higher, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With belled fire and the
moth-soft Milky way, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What by your measure is the
heaven of desire, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The treasure never eyesight
got, nor was ever guessed what for the hearing? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No, but it was not
these. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The jading and jar of the
cart, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Time's tasking, it is
fathers that asking for ease <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of the
sodden-with-its-sorrowing heart, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Not danger, electrical
horror; then further it finds <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The appealing of the
Passion is tenderer in prayer apart: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Other, I gather, in measure
her mind's <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Burden, in wind's burly and
beat of endragonèd seas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But how shall I . . . make
me room there: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reach me a ... Fancy, come
faster— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Strike you the sight of it?
look at it loom there, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thing that she ... there
then! the Master, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Ipse</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">,
the only one, Christ, King, Head: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He was to cure the
extremity where he had cast her; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Do, deal, lord it with
living and dead; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Let him ride, her pride, in
his triumph, despatch and have done with his doom there. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ah! there was a heart
right <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There was single eye! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Read the unshapeable shock
night <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And knew the who and the
why; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wording it how but by him
that present and past, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Heaven and earth are word
of, worded by?— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Simon Peter of a soul!
to the blast <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tarpeian-fast, but a blown
beacon of light. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jesu, heart's light, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jesu, maid's son, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What was the feast followed
the night <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou hadst glory of this
nun?— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Feast of the one woman
without stain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For so conceivèd, so to
conceive thee is done; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But here was heart-throe,
birth of a brain, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Word, that heard and kept
thee and uttered thee outright. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Well, she has thee for the
pain, for the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Patience; but pity of the
rest of them! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Heart, go and bleed at a
bitterer vein for the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Comfortless unconfessed of
them— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No not uncomforted:
lovely-felicitous Providence <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Finger of a tender of, O of
a feathery delicacy, the breast of the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Maiden could obey so, be a
bell to, ring of it, and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Startle the poor sheep
back! is the shipwrack then a harvest, does tempest carry the grain for
thee? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I admire thee, master of
the tides, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of the Yore-flood, of the
year's fall; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The recurb and the recovery
of the gulf's sides, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The girth of it and the
wharf of it and the wall; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Staunching, quenching ocean
of a motionable mind; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ground of being, and
granite of it: past all <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Grasp God, throned
behind <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Death with a sovereignty
that heeds but hides, bodes but abides; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">With a mercy that
outrides <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The all of water, an
ark <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For the listener; for the
lingerer with a love glides <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lower than death and the
dark; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A vein for the visiting of
the past-prayer, pent in prison, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The-last-breath penitent
spirits—the uttermost mark <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Our passion-plungèd giant
risen, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Christ of the Father
compassionate, fetched in the storm of his strides. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Now burn, new born to the
world, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Doubled-naturèd name, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The heaven-flung,
heart-fleshed, maiden-furled <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Miracle-in-Mary-of-flame, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mid-numbered he in three of
the thunder-throne! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Not a dooms-day dazzle in
his coming nor dark as he came; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kind, but royally
reclaiming his own; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A released shower, let flash
to the shire, not a lightning of fíre hard-hurled. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dame, at our door <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Drowned, and among our
shoals, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Remember us in the roads,
the heaven-haven of the Reward: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Our Kíng back, Oh, upon
énglish sóuls! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Let him easter in us, be a
dayspring to the dimness of us, be a crimson-cresseted east, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">More brightening her,
rare-dear Britain, as his reign rolls, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pride, rose, prince, hero
of us, high-priest, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Our hearts' charity's
hearth's fire, our thoughts' chivalry's throng's Lord. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section3">
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Easter, 1916<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">BY </span></b><a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/william-butler-yeats"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .3pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-transform: uppercase; text-underline: none;">WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
have met them at close of day <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Coming
with vivid faces <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">From
counter or desk among grey <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Eighteenth-century
houses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
have passed with a nod of the head <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
polite meaningless words, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Or
have lingered awhile and said <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Polite
meaningless words, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
thought before I had done <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of
a mocking tale or a gibe <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
please a companion <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Around
the fire at the club, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Being
certain that they and I <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But
lived where motley is worn: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">All
changed, changed utterly: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A
terrible beauty is born. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That
woman's days were spent <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In
ignorant good-will, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Her
nights in argument <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Until
her voice grew shrill. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What
voice more sweet than hers <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When,
young and beautiful, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">She
rode to harriers? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
man had kept a school <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
rode our wingèd horse; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
other his helper and friend <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Was
coming into his force; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
might have won fame in the end, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">So
sensitive his nature seemed, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">So
daring and sweet his thought. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
other man I had dreamed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A
drunken, vainglorious lout. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He
had done most bitter wrong <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
some who are near my heart, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet
I number him in the song; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He,
too, has resigned his part <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In
the casual comedy; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He,
too, has been changed in his turn, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Transformed
utterly: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A
terrible beauty is born. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hearts
with one purpose alone <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Through
summer and winter seem <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Enchanted
to a stone <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
trouble the living stream. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
horse that comes from the road, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
rider, the birds that range <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">From
cloud to tumbling cloud, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Minute
by minute they change; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A
shadow of cloud on the stream <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Changes
minute by minute; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A
horse-hoof slides on the brim, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
a horse plashes within it; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
long-legged moor-hens dive, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
hens to moor-cocks call; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Minute
by minute they live: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
stone's in the midst of all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Too
long a sacrifice <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Can
make a stone of the heart. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">O
when may it suffice? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That
is Heaven's part, our part <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
murmur name upon name, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As
a mother names her child <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When
sleep at last has come <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On
limbs that had run wild. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What
is it but nightfall? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No,
no, not night but death; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Was
it needless death after all? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For
England may keep faith <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For
all that is done and said. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">We
know their dream; enough <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
know they dreamed and are dead; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
what if excess of love <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bewildered
them till they died? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I
write it out in a verse— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MacDonagh
and MacBride <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And
Connolly and Pearse <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Now
and in time to be, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wherever
green is worn, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Are
changed, changed utterly: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A terrible beauty is born.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section5">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Anthem for Doomed Youth<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.3pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">BY </span></b><a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/wilfred-owen"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .3pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-transform: uppercase; text-underline: none;">WILFRED OWEN</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="Section6">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What
passing-bells for these who die as cattle? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> — Only
the monstrous anger of the guns. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Only
the stuttering rifles' rapid rattle <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Can
patter out their hasty orisons. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No
mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Nor
any voice of mourning save the choirs,— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> And
bugles calling for them from sad shires. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">What
candles may be held to speed them all? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Not
in the hands of boys, but in their eyes <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shall
shine the holy glimmers of goodbyes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
pallor of girls' brows shall be their pall; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Their
flowers the tenderness of patient minds, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></b>
<div class="Section7">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Unknown Citizen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.poets.org/node/45593" target="_top"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">W.
H. Auden</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="date-display-single">1907</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>-<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="date-display-single">1973</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(To JS/07 M 378 This Marble Monument Is
Erected by the State)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He was found by the Bureau of Statistics to
be<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One against whom there was no official
complaint,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And all the reports on his conduct agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That, in the modern sense of an old-fashioned
word, he was a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
saint,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For in everything he did he served the
Greater Community.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Except for the War till the day he retired<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He worked in a factory and never got fired,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But satisfied his employers, Fudge Motors
Inc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet he wasn’t a scab or odd in his views,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For his Union reports that he paid his dues,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(Our report on his Union shows it was sound)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And our Social Psychology workers found<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That he was popular with his mates and liked
a drink.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Press are convinced that he bought a
paper every day<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And that his reactions to advertisements were
normal in every way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Policies taken out in his name prove that he
was fully insured,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And his Health-card shows he was once in
hospital but left it cured.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Both Producers Research and High-Grade Living
declare<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He was fully sensible to the advantages of
the Instalment Plan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And had everything necessary to the Modern
Man,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A phonograph, a radio, a car and a
frigidaire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Our researchers into Public Opinion are
content <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That he held the proper opinions for the time
of year;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When there was peace, he was for peace: when there was war, he went.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">He was married and added five children to the
population,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Which our Eugenist says was the right number
for a parent of his<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
generation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">And our teachers report that he never interfered
with their<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
education.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Was he free? Was he happy? The question is
absurd:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Had anything been wrong, we should certainly
have heard.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Section1">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">THE THOUGHT-FOX</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
I imagine this midnight moment’s forest:<br />
Something else is alive<br />
Beside the clock’s loneliness<br />
And this blank page where my fingers move.<br />
</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Through the window I
see no star:<br />
Something more near</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Though deeper within
darkness<br />
Is entering the loneliness:<br />
<br />
Cold, delicately as the dark snow,<br />
A fox’s nose touches twig, leaf;<br />
Two eyes serve a movement, that now<br />
And again now, and now, and now<br />
<br />
Sets neat prints into the snow<br />
Between trees, and warily a lame<br />
Shadow lags by stump and in hollow<br />
Of a body that is bold to come</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Across clearings, an
eye,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A widening deepening
greenness,<br />
Brilliantly, concentratedly,<br />
Coming about its own business</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Till, with a sudden
sharp hot stink of fox</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It enters the dark
hole of the head.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The window is
starless still; the clock ticks,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The page is
printed. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 4: Drama<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pygmalion – George Bernard Shaw<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical Context<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">World War I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nineteen-fourteen, the year of <i>Pygmalion's </i>London premiere,
marked tremendous changes in British society. On July 28, the Austrian archduke
Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia, setting off
an international conflict due to a complicated set of alliances which had
developed in Europe. Within two weeks, this conflict had erupted into a world
war (known in Britain at the time as the "Great War"). By the end of
World War I (as it came to be known later), 8.5 million people had been killed
and 21 million wounded, including significant civilian casualties. The war
constituted the most intense physical, economic and psychological assault on
European society in its history; Britain was not alone in experiencing
devastating effects on its national morale and other aspects of society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The war brought out Shaw's compassion, as well as his disgust with the
European societies that would tolerate the destruction of so many lives. To
Shaw, the war only demonstrated more clearly the need for human advancement on
an individual and social level, to reach a level of understanding that would
prevent such tragic devastation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Colonialism and the British Empire<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1914 Great Britain was very much still a colonial power, but while
victory in the First World War actually increased the size of the British
Empire, the war itself simultaneously accelerated the development of
nationalism and autonomy in the provinces.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In addition to providing a symbolic unity to the Empire, the long reign
of Queen Victoria (1837-1901) also gave coherence to British society at home,
through a set of values known as Victorianism. Victorian values revolved around
social high-mindedness (a Christian sense of charity and service), domesticity
(most education and entertainment occurred in the home, but children, who
"should be seen and not heard," were reared with a strict hand) and a
confidence in the expansion of knowledge and the power of reasoned argument to
change society. By the time of Victoria's death, many of the more traditional
mid-Victorian values were already being challenged, as was the class structure
upon which many of these values depended. Victorianism, however, survived in a
modified form through the reign of Victoria's son, Edward. 1914, the year of <i>Pygmalion
</i>and the onset of the Great War, constituted a much different kind of break,
symbolic and social.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Industrialization<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The growth of industrialization throughout the nineteenth century had a
tremendous impact on the organization of British society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Industrialization brought about a demographic shift throughout the
nineteenth century, with more and more agricultural laborers coming to seek
work in the cities. Unskilled laborers like the Doolittles competed for limited
employment amid the poverty of the inner city and were largely at the mercy of
employers. Increased health standards combated urban crises like tuberculosis
and cholera, but slum conditions and rampant urban poverty remained a major
social problem after the turn of the century. <i>Pygmalion </i>suggests the
subjectivity of class identity, and the rapid deterioration of many
pre-industrial social structures, but strict class distinctions of another kind
nevertheless persisted. This fact is suggested by the severely disproportionate
distribution of wealth in Britain at the time. The poorest of the poor,
meanwhile, were often forced into workhouses, institutions which<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">had been developed in the 17th century to
employ paupers and the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">indigent at profitable work. Conditions in
the workhouses differed little from prisons; they were deliberately harsh and
degrading in order to discourage the poor from relying upon them. Conditions in
the workhouses improved later in the 19th century but were still unpleasant
enough that fear of going to one, for example, causes Doolittle in <i>Pygmalion
</i>to accept his new position in the middle class even though it is
displeasing to him for other reasons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Rise of Women and the Working Classes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">During the decade which produced <i>Pygmalion, </i>the political power
of the working class increased greatly, through massive increases in trade
union membership. A new political party, Labour, came into existence in 1893
advancing an eight-hour work day and other workplace reforms. Meanwhile,
reforms to laws concerning suffrage, the right to vote, further brought men
(and later, women) of the working class into Britain's evermore participatory
democracy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Only after many years of political straggle by organizations of women
known as "suffragettes" did women achieve the right to vote.
Increased political participation further prompted a shift in sex roles:
British society had already noted the phenomenon of "the new woman,"
and was to see further changes such as increasing numbers of women in the work
force, as well as reforms to divorce laws and other impacts upon domestic life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary & Analysis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Act I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The action begins at 11:15 p.m. in a heavy summer rainstorm. An
after-theatre crowd takes shelter in the portico of St. Paul's Church in Covent
Garden. A young girl, Clara Eynsford Hill, and her mother are wailing for
Clara's brother Freddy, who looks in vain for an available cab. Colliding into
flower peddler Liza Doolittle, Freddy scatters her flowers. After he departs to
continue looking for a cab, Liza convinces Mrs. Eynsford Hill to pay for the
damaged flowers; she then cons three halfpence from Colonel Pickering. Liza is
made aware of the presence of Henry Higgins, who has been writing down every
word she has said. Thinking Higgins is a policeman who is going to arrest her
for scamming people, Liza becomes hysterical, Higgins turns out, however, to be
making a record of her speech for scientific ends. Higgins is an expert in
phonetics who claims: "I can place any man within six miles. I can place
him within two miles in London. Sometimes within two streets." Upbraiding
Liza for her speech, Higgins boasts that "in three months I could pass
that girl off as a duchess at an ambassador's garden party." Higgins and
Pickering eventually trade names and realize they have long wanted to meet each
other. They go off to dine together and discuss phonetics. Liza picks up the
money Higgins had flung down upon exiting and for once treats her to a taxi
ride home.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Act II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The next morning at 11 a.m. in
Higgins's laboratory, which is full of instruments Higgins and Pickering
receive Liza, who has presented herself at the door. Higgins is taken aback by
Liza's request for lessons from him. She wants to learn to "talk more
genteel" so she can be employed in a flower shop instead of selling
flowers on the street. Liza can only offer to pay a shilling per lesson, but
Pickering, intrigued by Higgins's claims the previous night, offers to pay for
Liza's lessons and says of the experiment: "I'll say you're the greatest
teacher alive if you make that good." Higgins enthusiastically accepts the
bet, though his housekeeper, Mrs. Pearce, pleads with him to consider what will
become of Liza after the experiment. Liza agrees to move into Higgins's home
and goes upstairs for a bath. Meanwhile, Higgins and Pickering are visited by
Liza's father, Doolittle, "an elderly but vigorous dustman." Rather
than demanding to take Liza away, Doolittle instead offers to "let her
go" for the sum of five pounds. Higgins is shocked by this offer at first,
asking whether Doolittle has any morals, but he is persuaded by Doolittle's
response, that the latter is too poor to afford them. Exiting quickly with his
booty, Doolittle does not at first recognize his daughter, who has re-entered,
cleaned up and dressed in a Japanese kimono.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Act III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The setting is the flat of Mrs. Higgins, Henry's mother. Henry bursts in
with a flurry of excitement, much to the distress of his mother, who finds him
lacking in social graces (she observes that her friends "stop coming
whenever they meet you"). Henry explains that he has invited Liza, taking
the opportunity for an early test of his progress with Liza's speech. The
Eynsford Hills, guests of Mrs. Higgins, arrive. The discussion is awkward and
Henry, true to his mother's observations, does appear very uncomfortable in
company. Liza arrives and, while she speaks with perfect pronunciation and
tone, she confuses the guests with many of her topics of conversation and
peculiar turns of phrase. Higgins convinces the guests that these, including
Liza's famous exclamation "not bloody likely!" are the latest trend
in small talk. After all the guests (including Liza) have left, Mrs. Higgins
challenges Henry and Pickering regarding their plans; she is shocked that they
have given no thought to Liza's well-being, for after the conclusion of the
experiment she will have no income, only "the manners and habits that
disqualify a fine lady from earning her own living." Henry is
characteristically flip, stating "there's no good bothering now. The
thing's done." Pickering is no more thoughtful than Higgins, and as the
two men exit, Mrs. Higgins expresses her exasperation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A following scene, the most important of the "optional" scenes
Shaw wrote for the film version <i>of Pygmalion </i>and included in later
editions of the play takes place at an Embassy party in London. Higgins is
nervous that Nepommuck, a Hungarian interpreter and his former student, will
discover his ruse and expose Liza as an aristocratic imposter. Nepommuck, ironically,
accuses Liza not of faking her social class, but her nationality. He is
convinced Liza must be Hungarian and of noble blood, for she speaks English
"too perfectly," and "only foreigners who have been taught to
speak it speak it well." Higgins is victorious, but finds little pleasure
in having outwitted such foolish guests.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Act IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Midnight, in Henry's laboratory. Higgins, Pickering, and Liza return
from the party. Higgins loudly bemoans the evening: "What a crew' what a
silly tomfoolery!" Liza grows more and more frustrated as he continues to
complain (' Thank God it's over!"), not paying attention to her or
acknowledging her role in his triumph. Complaining about not being able to find
his slippers, Higgins does not observe Liza retrieving them and placing them
directly by him. She controls her anger as Higgins and Pickering exit, but when
Higgins storms back in, still wrathfully looking for his slippers, Liza hurls
them at him with all her might. She derides Higgins for his selfishness and
demands of him, "What's to become of me?" Higgins tries to convince
her that her irritation is "only imagination," that she should
"go to bed like a good girl and sleep it off." Higgins gradually
understands Liza's economic concern (that she cannot go back to selling
flowers, but has no other future), but he can only awkwardly suggest marriage
to a rich man as a solution. Liza criticizes the subjugation that Higgins's
suggestion implies: "I sold flowers. I didn't sell myself. Now you've made
a lady of me I'm not fit to sell anything else." Liza infuriates Higgins
by rejecting him, giving him back the rented jewels she wears, and a ring he
had bought for her. He angrily throws the ring in the fireplace and storms out.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In the next important "optional scene," Liza has left
Higgins's home and comes upon Freddy, who, infatuated with the former flower
girl, has recently been spending most of his nights gazing up at Liza's window.
They fall into each other's arms, but their passionate kisses are interrupted
first by one constable, then another, and another. Liza suggests they jump in a
taxi, "and drive about all night; and in the morning I'll call on old Mrs.
Higgins and ask her what I ought to do."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Act V<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mrs. Higgins's drawing room, the next day. Henry and Pickering arrive and
while they are downstairs phoning the police about Liza's disappearance, Mrs.
Higgins asks the chambermaid to warn Liza, taking shelter upstairs, not to come
down. Mrs. Higgins scolds Henry and Pickering for their childishness and the
careless manner in which they treated another human. The arrival of Alfred
Doolittle is announced; he enters dressed fashionably as a bridegroom, but in
an agitated state, casting accusations at Higgins. Doolittle explains at length
how by a deed of Henry's he has come into a regular pension. His lady companion
will now marry him, but still he is miserable. Where he once could "put
the touch" on anyone for drinking money, now everyone comes to him,
demanding favours and monetary support. At this point, Mrs. Higgins reveals that
Liza is upstairs, again criticizing Henry for his unthoughtful behavior towards
the girl. Mrs. Higgins calls Liza down, asking Doolittle to step out for a
moment to delay the shock of the news he brings. Liza enters, politely cool
towards Henry. She thanks Pickering for all the respect he has shown her since
their first meeting: calling her Miss Doolittle, removing his hat, opening
doors. The difference," Liza concludes, "between a lady and a flower
girl is not how she behaves but how she's treated."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At this point, Doolittle returns. He and Liza are re-united, and all the
characters (excepting Henry) prepare to leave to see Doolittle married. Liza
and Higgins are left alone. Higgins argues that he didn't treat Liza poorly
because she was a flower girl but because he treats everyone the same. He
defends his behavior by attacking traditional social graces as absurd:
"You call me a brute because you couldn't buy a claim on me by fetching my
slippers," he says. Liza declares that since Higgins gave no thought to
her future, she will marry Freddy and support herself by teaching phonetics,
perhaps assisting Nepommuck. Higgins grows furious at Liza and "lays his
hands on her." He quickly regrets doing so and expresses appreciation of
Liza's newfound independence. At the play's curtain he remains incorrigible,
however, cheerfully assuming that Liza will continue to manage his household
details as she had done during her days of instruction with him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Themes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Appearances and Reality<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pygmalion </span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">examines
this theme primarily through the character of Liza, and the issue of personal
identity (as perceived by oneself or by others). Social roles in the Victorian
era were viewed as natural and largely fixed: there was perceived to be
something inherently, fundamentally unique about a noble versus an unskilled
laborer and vice versa. Liza's ability to fool society about her
"real" identity raises questions about appearances. The importance of
appearance and reality to the theme <i>of Pygmalion </i>is suggested by Liza's
famous observation: "You see, really and truly, apart from the things
anyone can pick up (the dressing and the proper way of speaking, and so on),
the difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how
she's treated."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Beauty<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In Pygmalion, </span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shaw
interrogates beauty as a subjective value. One's perception of beauty in
another person is shown to be a highly complex matter, dependent on a large
number of (not always aesthetic) factors. Liza, it could be argued, is the same
person from the beginning of the play to the end, but while she is virtually
invisible to Freddy as a Cockney-speaking flower merchant, he Is totally
captivated by what he perceives as her beauty and grace when she is presented
to him as a lady of society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Change and Transformation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The transformation of Liza is, of course, central to the plot and theme <i>of
Pygmalion. </i>The importance at first appears to rest in the power Higgins
expresses by achieving this transformation. "But you have no idea,"
he says, "how frightfully interesting it is to take a human being and
change her into a quite different human being by creating a new speech for her.
It's filling up the deepest gulf that separates class from class and soul from
soul." As the play unfolds, however, the focus shifts so that the effects
of the change upon Liza become central. The truly important transformation Liza
goes through is not the adoption of refined speech and manners but the learning
of independence and a sense of inner self-worth that allows her to leave
Higgins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Identity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The indeterminacy of appearance and reality in <i>Pygmalion </i>reveals
the significant examination of identity in the play. Shaw investigates
conflicts between differing perceptions of identity and depicts the end result
of Higgins's experiment as a crisis of identity for Liza. Liza's transformation
is glorious but painful, as it leaves her displaced between her former social
identity and a new one, which she has no income or other resources to support.
Not clearly belonging to a particular class, Liza no longer knows <i>who she
is.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Language and Meaning<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In an age of growing standardization of what was known as "the
Queen's English," <i>Pygmalion points </i>to a much wider range of
varieties of spoken English. Shaw believed characteristics of social identity
such as one's refinement of speech were completely subjective ones, as his play
suggests. While Shaw himself hated poor speech and the varieties of dialect and
vocabulary could present obstructions to conveying meaning, nevertheless the
play suggests that the real richness of the English language is in the variety
of individuals who speak it. As for the dialect or vocabulary of any one
English variety, such as Cockney, its social value is determined in <i>Pygmalion
</i>completely by the context in which it is assessed. While Liza's choice of
words as a Cockney flower merchant would be thought as absurd as her accent,
they are later perceived by the mannered Eynsford Hill family to be the latest
trend, when they are thought to emanate from a person of noble breeding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sex Roles<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sex and gender have a great deal to do with the dynamics between Liza
and Higgins, including the sexual tension between them that many audience
members would have liked to see fulfilled through a romantic union between
them. In Liza's difficult case, what are defined as her options are clearly a
limited subset of options available to a woman. As Mrs. Higgins observes, after
the conclusion of the experiment Liza will have no income, only "the
manners and habits that disqualify a fine lady from earning her own
living." To this problem Higgins can only awkwardly suggest marriage to a
rich man as a solution. Liza makes an astute observation about Higgins's
suggestion, focusing on the limited options available to a woman: "I sold
flowers, I didn't sell myself. Now you've made a lady of me I'm not fit to sell
anything else."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ubermensch ("Superman")<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shaw's belief in the Life Force and the possibility of human evolution
on an individual or social level led him to believe also in the possibility of
the Superman, a realized individual living to the fullest extent of his or her
capacity. (The naming of the concept is credited to the influential German
philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, 1844-1900). Shaw addresses the topic
explicitly in his play <i>Man and Superman </i>and in many other works, but he
also approaches it in <i>Pygmalion. </i>Higgins, for example, represents the
height of scientific achievement in his field, though he may be too flawed as
an individual to continue evolving towards a superhuman level. Liza, proving
herself capable of one type of transformation, also makes an important step
towards self-awareness and self-realization, which for Shaw is the beginning of
almost endless possibilities for personal development.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wealth and Poverty<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> One of the many subjects under
examination in <i>Pygmalion </i>is class consciousness, a concept first given
name in 1887. Shaw's play, like so many of his writings, examines both the
realities of class and its subjective markers. The linguistic signals of social
identity, for example, are simultaneously an issue of class. Economic issues
are central to Liza's crisis at the conclusion of Higgins's experiment, for she
lacks the means to maintain the standard of living he and Pickering enjoy.
Doolittle's unforeseen rise into the middle class similarly allows Shaw to
examine wealth and poverty. Though Doolittle fears the workhouse he's not happy
with his new class identity, either; Shaw injects humor through Doolittle's
surprising (according to traditional class values) distaste for his new status.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit – 5: Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/animalfarm/"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Animal Farm</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">George
Orwell<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Context<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<span lang="EN-IN">George Orwell was the pen
name of Eric Blair, a British political novelist and essayist whose pointed
criticisms of political oppression propelled him into prominence toward the
middle of the twentieth century. Born in 1903 to British colonists in Bengal,
India, Orwell received his education at a series of private schools, including
Eton, an elite school in England. His painful experiences with snobbishness and
social elitism at Eton, as well as his intimate familiarity with the reality of
British imperialism in India, made him deeply suspicious of the entrenched
class system in English society. As a young man, Orwell became a socialist,
speaking openly against the excesses of governments east and west and fighting
briefly for the socialist cause during the Spanish Civil War, which lasted from
1936 to 1939.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Unlike many British socialists in the 1930s and 1940s, Orwell was not
enamored of the Soviet Union and its policies, nor did he consider the Soviet
Union a positive representation of the possibilities of socialist society. He
could not turn a blind eye to the cruelties and hypocrisies of Soviet Communist
Party, which had overturned the semifeudal system of the tsars only to replace
it with the dictatorial reign of Joseph Stalin. Orwell became a sharp critic of
both capitalism and communism, and is remembered chiefly as an advocate of
freedom and a committed opponent of communist oppression. His two greatest
anti-totalitarian novels—<i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">and</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">1984</span></i><span lang="EN-IN">—form the basis of his
reputation. Orwell died in 1950, only a year after completing</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">1984,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">which many consider his
masterpiece.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">A dystopian novel,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">1984</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">attacks the idea of totalitarian communism (a political system in which one
ruling party plans and controls the collective social action of a state) by
painting a terrifying picture of a world in which personal freedom is
nonexistent.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">written in 1945, deals with similar themes but in a shorter and somewhat
simpler format. A “fairy story” in the style of Aesop’s fables, it uses animals
on an English farm to tell the history of Soviet communism. Certain animals are
based directly on Communist Party leaders: the pigs Napoleon and Snowball, for
example, are figurations of Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky, respectively.
Orwell uses the form of the fable for a number of aesthetic and political
reasons. To better understand these, it is helpful to know at least the
rudiments of Soviet history under Communist Party rule, beginning with the
October Revolution of 1917.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">In February 1917, Tsar
Nicholas II, the monarch of Russia, abdicated and the socialist Alexander
Kerensky became premier. At the end of October (November 7 on current
calendars), Kerensky was ousted, and Vladimir Lenin, the architect of the
Russian Revolution, became chief commissar. Almost immediately, as wars raged
on virtually every Russian front, Lenin’s chief allies began jockeying for
power in the newly formed state; the most influential included Joseph Stalin,
Leon Trotsky, Gregory Zinoviev, and Lev Kamenev. Trotsky and Stalin emerged as
the most likely heirs to Lenin’s vast power. Trotsky was a popular and
charismatic leader, famous for his impassioned speeches, while the taciturn
Stalin preferred to consolidate his power behind the scenes. After Lenin’s
death in 1924, Stalin orchestrated an alliance against Trotsky that included
himself, Zinoviev, and Kaminev. In the following years, Stalin succeeded in
becoming the unquestioned dictator of the Soviet Union and had Trotsky expelled
first from Moscow, then from the Communist Party, and finally from Russia
altogether in 1936. Trotsky fled to Mexico, where he was assassinated on
Stalin’s orders in 1940.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">In 1934, Stalin’s ally
Serge Kirov was assassinated in Leningrad, prompting Stalin to commence his
infamous purges of the Communist Party. Holding “show trials”—trials whose
outcomes he and his allies had already decided—Stalin had his opponents
officially denounced as participants in Trotskyist or anti-Stalinist conspiracies
and therefore as “enemies of the people,” an appellation that guaranteed their
immediate execution. As the Soviet government’s economic planning faltered and
failed, Russia suffered under a surge of violence, fear, and starvation. Stalin
used his former opponent as a tool to placate the wretched populace. Trotsky
became a common national enemy and thus a source of negative unity. He was a
frightening specter used to conjure horrifying eventualities, in comparison
with which the current misery paled. Additionally, by associating his enemies
with Trotsky’s name, Stalin could ensure their immediate and automatic
elimination from the Communist Party.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">These and many other developments in Soviet history before 1945 have
direct parallels in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm:</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">Napoleon ousts Snowball from the farm and, after the
windmill collapses, uses Snowball in his purges just as Stalin used Trotsky.
Similarly, Napoleon becomes a dictator, while Snowball is never heard from
again. Orwell was inspired to write</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">in part by his experiences in a Trotskyist group during the Spanish
Civil War, and Snowball certainly receives a more sympathetic portrayal than
Napoleon. But though</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">was written as an attack on a specific government, its general themes of
oppression, suffering, and injustice have far broader application; modern
readers have come to see Orwell’s book as a powerful attack on any political,
rhetorical, or military power that seeks to control human beings unjustly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical Context<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Russian society in the
early twentieth century was bipolar: a tiny minority controlled most of the
country’s wealth, while the vast majority of the country’s inhabitants were
impoverished and oppressed peasants. Communism arose in Russia when the
nation’s workers and peasants, assisted by a class of concerned intellectuals
known as the intelligentsia, rebelled against and overwhelmed the wealthy and
powerful class of capitalists and aristocrats. They hoped to establish a
socialist utopia based on the principles of the German economic and political
philosopher Karl Marx.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Das Kapital (Capital),</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">Marx advanced an economically deterministic interpretation of human
history, arguing that society would naturally evolve—from a monarchy and
aristocracy, to capitalism, and then on to communism, a system under which all
property would be held in common. The dignity of the poor workers oppressed by
capitalism would be restored, and all people would live as equals. Marx
followed this sober and scholarly work with</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">The Communist Manifesto,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">an impassioned call to action that urged, “Workers of the world, unite!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In the Russia of 1917, it
appeared that Marx’s dreams were to become reality. After a politically
complicated civil war, Tsar Nicholas II, the monarch of Russia, was forced to
abdicate the throne that his family had held for three centuries. Vladimir
Ilych Lenin, a Russian intellectual revolutionary, seized power in the name of
the Communist Party. The new regime took land and industry from private control
and put them under government supervision. This centralization of economic
systems constituted the first steps in restoring Russia to the prosperity it
had known before World War I and in modernizing the nation’s primitive
infrastructure, including bringing electricity to the countryside. After Lenin
died in 1924, Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky jockeyed for control of the newly
formed Soviet Union. Stalin, a crafty and manipulative politician, soon
banished Trotsky, an idealistic proponent of international communism. Stalin
then began to consolidate his power with brutal intensity, killing or
imprisoning his perceived political enemies and overseeing the purge of
approximately twenty million Soviet citizens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Plot Overview<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Old Major, a prize-winning
boar, gathers the animals of the Manor Farm for a meeting in the big barn. He
tells them of a dream he has had in which all animals live together with no
human beings to oppress or control them. He tells the animals that they must
work toward such a paradise and teaches them a song called “Beasts of England,”
in which his dream vision is lyrically described. The animals greet Major’s
vision with great enthusiasm. When he dies only three nights after the meeting,
three younger pigs—Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer—formulate his main principles
into a philosophy called Animalism. Late one night, the animals manage to
defeat the farmer Mr. Jones in a battle, running him off the land. They rename
the property Animal Farm and dedicate themselves to achieving Major’s dream.
The cart-horse Boxer devotes himself to the cause with particular zeal,
committing his great strength to the prosperity of the farm and adopting as a
personal maxim the affirmation “I will work harder.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">At first, Animal Farm
prospers. Snowball works at teaching the animals to read, and Napoleon takes a
group of young puppies to educate them in the principles of Animalism. When Mr.
Jones reappears to take back his farm, the animals defeat him again, in what
comes to be known as the Battle of the Cowshed, and take the farmer’s abandoned
gun as a token of their victory. As time passes, however, Napoleon and Snowball
increasingly quibble over the future of the farm, and they begin to struggle
with each other for power and influence among the other animals. Snowball
concocts a scheme to build an electricity-generating windmill, but Napoleon
solidly opposes the plan. At the meeting to vote on whether to take up the
project, Snowball gives a passionate speech. Although Napoleon gives only a
brief retort, he then makes a strange noise, and nine attack dogs—the puppies
that Napoleon had confiscated in order to “educate”—burst into the barn and
chase Snowball from the farm. Napoleon assumes leadership of Animal Farm and
declares that there will be no more meetings. From that point on, he asserts,
the pigs alone will make all of the decisions—for the good of every animal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Napoleon now quickly
changes his mind about the windmill, and the animals, especially Boxer, devote
their efforts to completing it. One day, after a storm, the animals find the
windmill toppled. The human farmers in the area declare smugly that the animals
made the walls too thin, but Napoleon claims that Snowball returned to the farm
to sabotage the windmill. He stages a great purge, during which various animals
who have allegedly participated in Snowball’s great conspiracy—meaning any
animal who opposes Napoleon’s uncontested leadership—meet instant death at the
teeth of the attack dogs. With his leadership unquestioned (Boxer has taken up
a second maxim, “Napoleon is always right”), Napoleon begins expanding his
powers, rewriting history to make Snowball a villain. Napoleon also begins to
act more and more like a human being—sleeping in a bed, drinking whisky, and
engaging in trade with neighboring farmers. The original Animalist principles
strictly forbade such activities, but Squealer, Napoleon’s propagandist,
justifies every action to the other animals, convincing them that Napoleon is a
great leader and is making things better for everyone—despite the fact that the
common animals are cold, hungry, and overworked.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Mr. Frederick, a
neighboring farmer, cheats Napoleon in the purchase of some timber and then
attacks the farm and dynamites the windmill, which had been rebuilt at great
expense. After the demolition of the windmill, a pitched battle ensues, during
which Boxer receives major wounds. The animals rout the farmers, but Boxer’s
injuries weaken him. When he later falls while working on the windmill, he
senses that his time has nearly come. One day, Boxer is nowhere to be found.
According to Squealer, Boxer has died in peace after having been taken to the
hospital, praising the Rebellion with his last breath. In actuality, Napoleon
has sold his most loyal and long-suffering worker to a glue maker in order to
get money for whisky.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IN">Years pass on Animal Farm,
and the pigs become more and more like human beings—walking upright, carrying
whips, and wearing clothes. Eventually, the seven principles of Animalism,
known as the Seven Commandments and inscribed on the side of the barn, become
reduced to a single principle reading “all animals are equal, but some animals
are more equal than others.” Napoleon entertains a human farmer named Mr.
Pilkington at a dinner and declares his intent to ally himself with the human
farmers against the laboring classes of both the human and animal communities.
He also changes the name of Animal Farm back to the Manor Farm, claiming that
this title is the “correct” one. Looking in at the party of elites through the
farmhouse window, the common animals can no longer tell which are the pigs and
which are the human beings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Character List<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="1"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Napoleon</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The pig that emerges as the leader of Animal
Farm after the Rebellion. Based on Joseph Stalin, Napoleon uses military force
(his nine loyal attack dogs) to intimidate the other animals and consolidate
his power. In his supreme craftiness, Napoleon proves more treacherous than his
counterpart, Snowball.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="2"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Snowball</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The pig who challenges Napoleon for control
of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Based on Leon Trotsky, Snowball is
intelligent, passionate, eloquent, and less subtle and devious than his
counterpart, Napoleon. Snowball seems to win the loyalty of the other animals
and cement his power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="3"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Boxer</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The cart-horse whose incredible strength, dedication, and
loyalty play a key role in the early prosperity of Animal Farm and the later
completion of the windmill. Quick to help but rather slow-witted, Boxer shows
much devotion to Animal Farm’s ideals but little ability to think about them
independently. He naïvely trusts the pigs to make all his decisions for him.
His two mottoes are “I will work harder” and “Napoleon is always right.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="4"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Squealer</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The pig that spreads Napoleon’s propaganda
among the other animals. Squealer justifies the pigs’ monopolization of
resources and spreads false statistics pointing to the farm’s success. Orwell
uses Squealer to explore the ways in which those in power often use rhetoric
and language to twist the truth and gain and maintain social and political
control.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="5"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Old Major</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The prize-winning boar whose vision of a
socialist utopia serves as the inspiration for the Rebellion. Three days after
describing the vision and teaching the animals the song “Beasts of England,”
Major dies, leaving Snowball and Napoleon to struggle for control of his
legacy. Orwell based Major on both the German political economist Karl Marx and
the Russian revolutionary leader Vladimir Ilych Lenin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="6"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Clover</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - A good-hearted female cart-horse and Boxer’s close friend.
Clover often suspects the pigs of violating one or another of the Seven
Commandments, but she repeatedly blames herself for misremembering the
commandments.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="7"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Moses</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The tame raven who spreads stories of Sugarcandy Mountain,
the paradise to which animals supposedly go when they die. Moses plays only a
small role in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></i>but
Orwell uses him to explore how communism exploits religion as something with
which to pacify the oppressed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="8"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Mollie</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The vain, flighty mare who pulls Mr. Jones’s carriage.
Mollie craves the attention of human beings and loves being groomed and
pampered. She has a difficult time with her new life on Animal Farm, as she
misses wearing ribbons in her mane and eating sugar cubes. She represents the
petit bourgeoisie that fled from Russia a few years after the Russian
Revolution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="9"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Benjamin</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The long-lived donkey who refuses to feel
inspired by the Rebellion. Benjamin firmly believes that life will remain
unpleasant no matter who is in charge. Of all of the animals on the farm, he
alone comprehends the changes that take place, but he seems either unwilling or
unable to oppose the pigs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="10"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Muriel</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The white goat who reads the Seven Commandments to Clover
whenever Clover suspects the pigs of violating their prohibitions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="11"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Mr. Jones</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The often drunk farmer who runs the Manor
Farm before the animals stage their Rebellion and establish Animal Farm. Mr. Jones
is an unkind master who indulges himself while his animals lack food; he thus
represents Tsar Nicholas II, whom the Russian Revolution ousted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="12"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Mr. Frederick</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The tough, shrewd operator of
Pinchfield, a neighboring farm. Based on Adolf Hitler, the ruler of Nazi
Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, Mr. Frederick proves an untrustworthy neighbor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="13"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Mr. Pilkington</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The easygoing gentleman farmer
who runs Foxwood, a neighboring farm. Mr. Frederick’s bitter enemy, Mr.
Pilkington represents the capitalist governments of England and the United
States.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="14"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Mr. Whymper</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The human solicitor whom Napoleon hires to
represent Animal Farm in human society. Mr. Whymper’s entry into the Animal
Farm community initiates contact between Animal Farm and human society,
alarming the common animals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="15"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Jessie and Bluebell</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - Two dogs, each of whom gives
birth early in the novel. Napoleon takes the puppies in order to “educate”
them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="16"></a><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Minimus</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - The poet pig who writes verse about Napoleon and pens the
banal patriotic song “Animal Farm, Animal Farm” to replace the earlier
idealistic hymn “Beasts of England,” which Old Major passes on to the others.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Themes, Motifs & Symbols<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Themes<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE CORRUPTION OF SOCIALIST
IDEALS IN THE SOVIET UNION</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">is most famous in the West
as a stinging critique of the history and rhetoric of the Russian Revolution.
Retelling the story of the emergence and development of Soviet communism in the
form of an animal fable,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">allegorizes the rise to power of the dictator Joseph Stalin. In the
novella, the overthrow of the human oppressor Mr. Jones by a democratic
coalition of animals quickly gives way to the consolidation of power among the
pigs. Much like the Soviet intelligentsia, the pigs establish themselves as the
ruling class in the new society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The struggle for pre-eminence between Leon Trotsky and Stalin emerges in
the rivalry between the pigs Snowball and Napoleon. In both the historical and
fictional cases, the idealistic but politically less powerful figure (Trotsky
and Snowball) is expelled from the revolutionary state by the malicious and
violent usurper of power (Stalin and Napoleon). The purges and show trials with
which Stalin eliminated his enemies and solidified his political base find
expression in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">as the false confessions and executions of animals that Napoleon
distrusts following the collapse of the windmill. Stalin’s tyrannical rule and
eventual abandonment of the founding principles of the Russian Revolution are
represented by the pigs’ turn to violent government and the adoption of human
traits and behaviors, the trappings of their original oppressors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Although Orwell believed strongly in socialist ideals, he felt that the
Soviet Union realized these ideals in a terribly perverse form. His novella
creates its most powerful ironies in the moments in which Orwell depicts the
corruption of Animalist ideals by those in power. For</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">serves not so much to
condemn tyranny or despotism as to indict the horrifying hypocrisy of tyrannies
that base themselves on, and owe their initial power to, ideologies of
liberation and equality. The gradual disintegration and perversion of the Seven
Commandments illustrates this hypocrisy with vivid force, as do Squealer’s
elaborate philosophical justifications for the pigs’ blatantly unprincipled
actions. Thus, the novella critiques the violence of the Stalinist regime
against the human beings it ruled, and also points to Soviet communism’s
violence against human logic, language, and ideals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE SOCIETAL TENDENCY
TOWARD CLASS STRATIFICATION</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">offers commentary on the
development of class tyranny and the human tendency to maintain and reestablish
class structures even in societies that allegedly stand for total equality. The
novella illustrates how classes that are initially unified in the face of a
common enemy, as the animals are against the humans, may become internally
divided when that enemy is eliminated. The expulsion of Mr. Jones creates a
power vacuum, and it is only so long before the next oppressor assumes totalitarian
control. The natural division between intellectual and physical labor quickly
comes to express itself as a new set of class divisions, with the
“brainworkers” (as the pigs claim to be) using their superior intelligence to
manipulate society to their own benefit. Orwell never clarifies in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">whether this negative state
of affairs constitutes an inherent aspect of society or merely an outcome
contingent on the integrity of a society’s intelligentsia. In either case, the
novella points to the force of this tendency toward class stratification in
many communities and the threat that it poses to democracy and freedom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE DANGER OF A NAÏVE
WORKING CLASS</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">One of the novella’s most impressive accomplishments is its portrayal
not just of the figures in power but also of the oppressed people themselves.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">is not told from the
perspective of any particular character, though occasionally it does slip into
Clover’s consciousness. Rather, the story is told from the perspective of the
common animals as a whole. Gullible, loyal, and hardworking, these animals give
Orwell a chance to sketch how situations of oppression arise not only from the
motives and tactics of the oppressors but also from the naïveté of the
oppressed, who are not necessarily in a position to be better educated or
informed. When presented with a dilemma, Boxer prefers not to puzzle out the
implications of various possible actions but instead to repeat to himself,
“Napoleon is always right.”</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">demonstrates how the inability or unwillingness to
question authority condemns the working class to suffer the full extent of the
ruling class’s oppression.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE ABUSE OF LANGUAGE AS
INSTRUMENTAL TO THE ABUSE OF POWER</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">One of Orwell’s central concerns, both in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">and in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">1984,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">is the way in which
language can be manipulated as an instrument of control. In</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">the pigs gradually twist
and distort a rhetoric of socialist revolution to justify their behavior and to
keep the other animals in the dark. The animals heartily embrace Major’s
visionary ideal of socialism, but after Major dies, the pigs gradually twist
the meaning of his words. As a result, the other animals seem unable to oppose
the pigs without also opposing the ideals of the Rebellion. By the end of the novella,
after Squealer’s repeated reconfigurations of the Seven Commandments in order
to decriminalize the pigs’ treacheries, the main principle of the farm can be
openly stated as “all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than
others.” This outrageous abuse of the word “equal” and of the ideal of equality
in general typifies the pigs’ method, which becomes increasingly audacious as
the novel progresses. Orwell’s sophisticated exposure of this abuse of language
remains one of the most compelling and enduring features of</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">worthy of close study even
after we have decoded its allegorical characters and events.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Motifs<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts,
and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">SONGS</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Animal Farm</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IN">is filled with songs,
poems, and slogans, including Major’s stirring “Beasts of England,” Minimus’s
ode to Napoleon, the sheep’s chants, and Minimus’s revised anthem, “Animal
Farm, Animal Farm.” All of these songs serve as propaganda, one of the major
conduits of social control. By making the working-class animals speak the same
words at the same time, the pigs evoke an atmosphere of grandeur and nobility
associated with the recited text’s subject matter. The songs also erode the animals’
sense of individuality and keep them focused on the tasks by which they will
purportedly achieve freedom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">STATE RITUAL</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">As Animal Farm shifts gears
from its early revolutionary fervor to a phase of consolidation of power in the
hands of the few, national rituals become an ever more common part of the
farm’s social life. Military awards, large parades, and new songs all
proliferate as the state attempts to reinforce the loyalty of the animals. The
increasing frequency of the rituals bespeaks the extent to which the working
class in the novella becomes ever more reliant on the ruling class to define
their group identity and values.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbols<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbols are objects, characters, figures, and
colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">ANIMAL FARM</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Animal Farm, known at the
beginning and the end of the novel as the Manor Farm, symbolizes Russia and the
Soviet Union under Communist Party rule. But more generally, Animal Farm stands
for any human society, be it capitalist, socialist, fascist, or communist. It
possesses the internal structure of a nation, with a government (the pigs), a
police force or army (the dogs), a working class (the other animals), and state
holidays and rituals. Its location amid a number of hostile neighboring farms
supports its symbolism as a political entity with diplomatic concerns.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE BARN</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The barn at Animal Farm, on
whose outside walls the pigs paint the Seven Commandments and, later, their
revisions, represents the collective memory of a modern nation. The many scenes
in which the ruling-class pigs alter the principles of Animalism and in which
the working-class animals puzzle over but accept these changes represent the
way an institution in power can revise a community’s concept of history to
bolster its control. If the working class believes history to lie on the side
of their oppressors, they are less likely to question oppressive practices.
Moreover, the oppressors, by revising their nation’s conception of its origins
and development, gain control of the nation’s very identity, and the oppressed
soon come to depend upon the authorities for their communal sense of self.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h5 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE WINDMILL</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 0.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The great windmill
symbolizes the pigs’ manipulation of the other animals for their own gain.
Despite the immediacy of the need for food and warmth, the pigs exploit Boxer
and the other common animals by making them undertake backbreaking labor to
build the windmill, which will ultimately earn the pigs more money and thus
increase their power. The pigs’ declaration that Snowball is responsible for the
windmill’s first collapse constitutes psychological manipulation, as it
prevents the common animals from doubting the pigs’ abilities and unites them
against a supposed enemy. The ultimate conversion of the windmill to commercial
use is one more sign of the pigs’ betrayal of their fellow animals. From an
allegorical point of view, the windmill represents the enormous modernization
projects undertaken in Soviet Russia after the Russian Revolution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter I<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">As the novella opens, Mr.
Jones, the proprietor and overseer of the Manor Farm, has just stumbled
drunkenly to bed after forgetting to secure his farm buildings properly. As
soon as his bedroom light goes out, all of the farm animals except Moses, Mr.
Jones’s tame raven, convene in the big barn to hear a speech by Old Major, a
prize boar and pillar of the animal community. Sensing that his long life is
about to come to an end, Major wishes to impart to the rest of the farm animals
a distillation of the wisdom that he has acquired during his lifetime.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">As the animals listen
raptly, Old Major delivers up the fruits of his years of quiet contemplation in
his stall. The plain truth, he says, is that the lives of his fellow animals
are “miserable, laborious, and short.” Animals are born into the world as slaves,
worked incessantly from the time they can walk, fed only enough to keep breath
in their bodies, and then slaughtered mercilessly when they are no longer
useful. He notes that the land upon which the animals live possesses enough
resources to support many times the present population in luxury; there is no
natural reason for the animals’ poverty and misery. Major blames the animals’
suffering solely on their human oppressors. Mr. Jones and his ilk have been
exploiting animals for ages, Major says, taking all of the products of their
labor—eggs, milk, dung, foals—for themselves and producing nothing of value to
offer the animals in return.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Old Major relates a dream
that he had the previous night, of a world in which animals live without the
tyranny of men: they are free, happy, well fed, and treated with dignity. He
urges the animals to do everything they can to make this dream a reality and
exhorts them to overthrow the humans who purport to own them. The animals can
succeed in their rebellion only if they first achieve a complete solidarity or
“perfect comradeship” of all of the animals against the humans, and if they
resist the false notion spread by humans that animals and humans share common
interests. A brief conversation arises in which the animals debate the status
of rats as comrades. Major then provides a precept that will allow the animals
to determine who their comrades are: creatures that walk on two legs are
enemies; those with four legs or with wings are allies. He reminds his audience
that the ways of man are completely corrupt: once the humans have been
defeated, the animals must never adopt any of their habits; they must not live
in a house, sleep in a bed, wear clothes, drink alcohol, smoke tobacco, touch
money, engage in trade, or tyrannize another animal. He teaches the animals a
song called “Beasts of England,” which paints a dramatic picture of the
utopian, or ideal, animal community of Major’s dream. The animals sing several
inspired choruses of “Beasts of England” with one voice—until Mr. Jones,
thinking that the commotion bespeaks the entry of a fox into the yard, fires a
shot into the side of the barn. The animals go to sleep, and the Manor Farm
again sinks into quietude.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter II<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Three nights later, Old
Major dies in his sleep, and for three months the animals make secret
preparations to carry out the old pig’s dying wish of wresting control of the
farm from Mr. Jones. The work of teaching and organizing falls to the pigs, the
cleverest of the animals, and especially to two pigs named Napoleon and
Snowball. Together with a silver-tongued pig named Squealer, they formulate the
principles of a philosophy called Animalism, the fundamentals of which they
spread among the other animals. The animals call one another “Comrade” and take
their quandaries to the pigs, who answer their questions about the impending
Rebellion. At first, many of the animals find the principles of Animalism
difficult to understand; they have grown up believing that Mr. Jones is their
proper master. Mollie, a vain carriage horse, expresses particular concern over
whether she will be able to continue to enjoy the little luxuries like eating
sugar and wearing ribbons in the new utopia. Snowball sternly reminds her that
ribbons symbolize slavery and that, in the animals’ utopia, they would have to
be abolished. Mollie halfheartedly agrees.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The pigs’ most troublesome
opponent proves to be Moses, the raven, who flies about spreading tales of a
place called Sugarcandy Mountain, where animals go when they die—a place of
great pleasure and plenty, where sugar grows on the hedges. Even though many of
the animals despise the talkative and idle Moses, they nevertheless find great
appeal in the idea of Sugarcandy Mountain. The pigs work very hard to convince
the other animals of the falsehood of Moses’s teachings. Thanks to the help of
the slow-witted but loyal cart-horses, Boxer and Clover, the pigs eventually
manage to prime the animals for revolution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The Rebellion occurs much
earlier than anyone expected and comes off with shocking ease. Mr. Jones has
been driven to drink after losing money in a lawsuit, and he has let his men
become lazy, dishonest, and neglectful. One day, Mr. Jones goes on a drinking
binge and forgets to feed the animals. Unable to bear their hunger, the cows
break into the store shed and the animals begin to eat. Mr. Jones and his men
discover the transgression and begin to whip the cows. Spurred to anger, the
animals turn on the men, attack them, and easily chase them from the farm.
Astonished by their success, the animals hurry to destroy the last remaining
evidence of their subservience: chains, bits, halters, whips, and other
implements stored in the farm buildings. After obliterating all signs of Mr.
Jones, the animals enjoy a double ration of corn and sing “Beasts of England”
seven times through, until it is time to sleep. In the morning, they admire the
farm from a high knoll before exploring the farmhouse, where they stare in
stunned silence at the unbelievable luxuries within. Mollie tries to stay
inside, where she can help herself to ribbons and gaze at herself in the
mirror, but the rest of the animals reprimand her sharply for her foolishness.
The group agrees to preserve the farmhouse as a museum, with the stipulation
that no animal may ever live in it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The pigs reveal to the
other animals that they have taught themselves how to read, and Snowball
replaces the inscription “Manor Farm” on the front gate with the words “Animal
Farm.” Snowball and Napoleon, having reduced the principles of Animalism to
seven key commandments, paint these commandments on the side of the big barn.
The animals go to gather the harvest, but the cows, who haven’t been milked in
some time, begin lowing loudly. The pigs milk them, and the animals eye the
five pails of milk desirously. Napoleon tells them not to worry about the milk;
he says that it will be “attended to.” Snowball leads the animals to the fields
to begin harvesting. Napoleon lags behind, and when the animals return that
evening, the milk has disappeared.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter III<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The animals spend a
laborious summer harvesting in the fields. The clever pigs think of ways for
the animals to use the humans’ tools, and every animal participates in the
work, each according to his capacity. The resulting harvest exceeds any that
the farm has ever known. Only Mollie and the cat shirk their duties. The
powerful and hard-working Boxer does most of the heavy labor, adopting “I will
work harder!” as a personal motto. The entire animal community reveres his
dedication and strength. Of all of the animals, only Benjamin, the obstinate
donkey, seems to recognize no change under the new leadership.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Every Sunday, the animals
hold a flag-raising ceremony. The flag’s green background represents the fields
of England, and its white hoof and horn symbolize the animals. The morning
rituals also include a democratic meeting, at which the animals debate and
establish new policies for the collective good. At the meetings, Snowball and
Napoleon always voice the loudest opinions, though their views always clash.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Snowball establishes a number of committees with various goals, such as
cleaning the cows’ tails and re-educating the rats and rabbits. Most of these
committees fail to accomplish their aims, but the classes designed to teach all
of the farm animals how to read and write meet with some success. By the end of
the summer, all of the animals achieve some degree of literacy. The pigs become
fluent in reading and writing, while some of the dogs are able to learn to read
the Seven Commandments. Muriel the goat can read scraps of newspaper, while
Clover knows the alphabet but cannot string the letters together. Poor Boxer
never gets beyond the letter</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IN"> </span></span><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">D.</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span lang="EN-IN" style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-IN">When it becomes apparent that many of the animals are
unable to memorize the Seven Commandments, Snowball reduces the principles to
one essential maxim, which he says contains the heart of Animalism: “Four legs
good, two legs bad.” The birds take offense until Snowball hastily explains
that wings count as legs. The other animals accept the maxim without argument,
and the sheep begin to chant it at random times, mindlessly, as if it were a
song.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Napoleon takes no interest
in Snowball’s committees. When the dogs Jessie and Bluebell each give birth to
puppies, he takes the puppies into his own care, saying that the training of
the young should take priority over adult education. He raises the puppies in a
loft above the harness room, out of sight of the rest of Animal Farm. Around
this time, the animals discover, to their outrage, that the pigs have been taking
all of the milk and apples for themselves. Squealer explains to them that pigs
need milk and apples in order to think well, and since the pigs’ work is brain
work, it is in everyone’s best interest for the pigs to eat the apples and
drink the milk. Should the pigs’ brains fail because of a lack of apples and
milk, Squealer hints, Mr. Jones might come back to take over the farm. This
prospect frightens the other animals, and they agree to forgo milk and apples
in the interest of the collective good.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter IV<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">By late summer, news of
Animal Farm has spread across half the county. Mr. Jones lives ignominiously in
Willingdon, drinking and complaining about his misfortune. Mr. Pilkington and
Mr. Frederick, who own the adjoining farms, fear that disenchantment will
spread among their own animals. Their rivalry with each other, however,
prevents them from working together against Animal Farm. They merely spread
rumors about the farm’s inefficiency and moral reprehensibility. Meanwhile,
animals everywhere begin singing “Beasts of England,” which they have learned
from flocks of pigeons sent by Snowball, and many begin to behave rebelliously.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">At last, in early October,
a flight of pigeons alerts Animal Farm that Mr. Jones has begun marching on the
farm with some of Pilkington’s and Frederick’s men. Snowball, who has studied
books about the battle campaigns of the renowned Roman general Julius Caesar,
prepares a defense and leads the animals in an ambush on the men. Boxer fights
courageously, as does Snowball, and the humans suffer a quick defeat. The
animals’ losses amount only to a single sheep, whom they give a hero’s burial.
Boxer, who believes that he has unintentionally killed a stable boy in the
chaos, expresses his regret at taking a life, even though it is a human one.
Snowball tells him not to feel guilty, asserting that “the only good human
being is a dead one.” Mollie, as is her custom, has avoided any risk to herself
by hiding during the battle. Snowball and Boxer each receive medals with the inscription
“Animal Hero, First Class.” The animals discover Mr. Jones’s gun where he
dropped it in the mud. They place it at the base of the flagstaff, agreeing to
fire it twice a year: on October 12th, the anniversary of the Battle of the
Cowshed—as they have dubbed their victory—and on Midsummer’s Day, the
anniversary of the Rebellion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter V<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Mollie becomes an
increasing burden on Animal Farm: she arrives late for work, accepts treats
from men associated with nearby farms, and generally behaves contrary to the
tenets of Animalism. Eventually she disappears, lured away by a fat, red-faced
man who stroked her coat and fed her sugar; now she pulls his carriage. None of
the other animals ever mentions her name again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">During the cold winter
months, the animals hold their meetings in the big barn, and Snowball and
Napoleon’s constant disagreements continue to dominate the proceedings.
Snowball proves a better speaker and debater, but Napoleon can better canvass
for support in between meetings. Snowball brims with ideas for improving the
farm: he studies Mr. Jones’s books and eventually concocts a scheme to build a
windmill, with which the animals could generate electricity and automate many
farming tasks, bringing new comforts to the animals’ lives. But building the
windmill would entail much hard work and difficulty, and Napoleon contends that
the animals should attend to their current needs rather than plan for a distant
future. The question deeply divides the animals. Napoleon surveys Snowball’s
plans and expresses his contempt by urinating on them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">When Snowball has finally
completed his plans, all assemble for a great meeting to decide whether to
undertake the windmill project. Snowball gives a passionate speech, to which
Napoleon responds with a pathetically unaffecting and brief retort. Snowball
speaks further, inspiring the animals with his descriptions of the wonders of
electricity. Just as the animals prepare to vote, however, Napoleon gives a
strange whimper, and nine enormous dogs wearing brass-studded collars charge
into the barn, attack Snowball, and chase him off the farm. They return to
Napoleon’s side, and, with the dogs growling menacingly, Napoleon announces
that from now on meetings will be held only for ceremonial purposes. He states
that all important decisions will fall to the pigs alone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Afterward, many of the
animals feel confused and disturbed. Squealer explains to them that Napoleon is
making a great sacrifice in taking the leadership responsibilities upon himself
and that, as the cleverest animal, he serves the best interest of all by making
the decisions. These statements placate the animals, though they still question
the expulsion of Snowball. Squealer explains that Snowball was a traitor and a
criminal. Eventually, the animals come to accept this version of events, and
Boxer adds greatly to Napoleon’s prestige by adopting the maxims “I will work
harder” and “Napoleon is always right.” These two maxims soon reinforce each
other when, three weeks after the banishment of Snowball, the animals learn
that Napoleon supports the windmill project. Squealer explains that their
leader never really opposed the proposal; he simply used his apparent
opposition as a maneuver to oust the wicked Snowball. These tactics, he claims,
served to advance the collective best interest. Squealer’s words prove so
appealing, and the growls of his three-dog entourage so threatening, that the
animals accept his explanation without question.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter VI<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">For the rest of the year,
the animals work at a backbreaking pace to farm enough food for themselves and
to build the windmill. The leadership cuts the rations—Squealer explains that
they have simply “readjusted” them—and the animals receive no food at all
unless they work on Sunday afternoons. But because they believe what the
leadership tells them—that they are working for their own good now, not for Mr.
Jones’s—they are eager to take on the extra labor. Boxer, in particular,
commits himself to Animal Farm, doing the work of three horses but never
complaining. Even though the farm possesses all of the necessary materials to
build the windmill, the project presents a number of difficulties. The animals
struggle over how to break the available stone into manageable sizes for
building without picks and crowbars, which they are unable to use. They finally
solve the problem by learning to raise and then drop big stones into the
quarry, smashing them into usable chunks. By late summer, the animals have
enough broken stone to begin construction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Although their work is
strenuous, the animals suffer no more than they had under Mr. Jones. They have
enough to eat and can maintain the farm grounds easily now that humans no
longer come to cart off and sell the fruits of their labor. But the farm still
needs a number of items that it cannot produce on its own, such as iron, nails,
and paraffin oil. As existing supplies of these items begin to run low,
Napoleon announces that he has hired a human solicitor, Mr. Whymper, to assist
him in conducting trade on behalf of Animal Farm. The other animals are taken
aback by the idea of engaging in trade with humans, but Squealer explains that
the founding principles of Animal Farm never included any prohibition against
trade and the use of money. He adds that if the animals think that they recall
any such law, they have simply fallen victim to lies fabricated by the traitor
Snowball.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Mr. Whymper begins paying a
visit to the farm every Monday, and Napoleon places orders with him for various
supplies. The pigs begin living in the farmhouse, and rumor has it that they
even sleep in beds, a violation of one of the Seven Commandments. But when
Clover asks Muriel to read her the appropriate commandment, the two find that
it now reads “No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.” Squealer explains
that Clover must have simply forgotten the last two words. All animals sleep in
beds, he says—a pile of straw is a bed, after all. Sheets, however, as a human
invention, constitute the true source of evil. He then shames the other animals
into agreeing that the pigs need comfortable repose in order to think clearly
and serve the greater good of the farm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Around this time, a
fearsome storm descends on Animal Farm, knocking down roof tiles, an elm tree,
and even the flagstaff. When the animals go into the fields, they find, to
their horror, that the windmill, on which they have worked so hard, has been
toppled. Napoleon announces in appalled tones that the windmill has been
sabotaged by Snowball, who, he says, will do anything to destroy Animal Farm.
Napoleon passes a death sentence on Snowball, offering a bushel of apples to
the traitor’s killer. He then gives a passionate speech in which he convinces
the animals that they must rebuild the windmill, despite the backbreaking toil
involved. “Long live the windmill!” he cries. “Long live Animal Farm!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter VII<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In the bitter cold of
winter, the animals struggle to rebuild the windmill. In January, they fall
short of food, a fact that they work to conceal from the human farmers around
them, lest Animal Farm be perceived to be failing. The humans refuse to believe
that Snowball caused the destruction of the windmill, saying that the
windmill’s walls simply weren’t thick enough. The animals deem this explanation
false, but they nevertheless decide to build the walls twice as thick this
time. Squealer gives ennobling speeches on the glory of sacrifice, but the
other animals acquire their real inspiration from the example of Boxer, who
works harder than ever. In order to feed the animals, Napoleon contracts to
sell four hundred eggs a week. The other animals react with shock—one of Old
Major’s original complaints about humans focused on the cruelty of egg selling,
or so they remember. The hens rebel, and Napoleon responds by cutting their
rations entirely. Nine hens die before the others give in to Napoleon’s
demands.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Soon afterward, the animals
hear, to their extreme dismay, that Snowball has been visiting the farm at
night, in secret, and sabotaging the animals’ efforts. Napoleon says that he
can detect Snowball’s presence everywhere, and whenever something appears to go
wrong by chance, Snowball receives the blame. One day, Squealer announces that
Snowball has sold himself to Mr. Frederick’s farm, Pinchfield, and that the
treacherous pig has been in league with Mr. Jones from the start. He recalls
Snowball’s attempts at the Battle of the Cowshed to have the animals defeated.
The animals hear these words in stupefied astonishment. They remember
Snowball’s heroism and recall that he received a medal. Boxer, in particular,
is completely baffled. But Napoleon and Squealer convince the others that
Snowball’s apparent bravery simply constituted part of his treacherous plot.
They also work to convince the animals of Napoleon’s superior bravery during
that battle. So vividly does Squealer describe Napoleon’s alleged heroic
actions that the animals are almost able to remember them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Four days later, Napoleon
convenes all of the animals in the yard. With his nine huge dogs ringed about
him and growling, he stages an inquisition and a purge: he forces certain
animals to confess to their participation in a conspiracy with Snowball and
then has the dogs tear out these supposed traitors’ throats. The dogs,
apparently without orders, even attack Boxer, who effortlessly knocks them away
with his huge hooves. But four pigs and numerous other animals meet their
deaths, including the hens who rebelled at the proposal to sell their eggs. The
terrible bloodshed leaves the animals deeply shaken and confused. After
Napoleon leaves, Boxer says that he would never have believed that such a thing
could happen on Animal Farm. He adds that the tragedy must owe to some fault in
the animals themselves; thus, he commits to working even harder. Clover looks
out over the farm, wondering how such a glorious rebellion as theirs could have
come to its current state. Some of the animals begin to sing “Beasts of
England,” but Squealer appears and explains that “Beasts of England” may no
longer be sung. It applied only to the Rebellion, he says, and now there is no
more need for rebellion. Squealer gives the animals a replacement song, written
by Minimus, the poet pig. The new song expresses profound patriotism and
glorifies Animal Farm, but it does not inspire the animals as “Beasts of
England” once did.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter VIII<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">A few days after the bloody
executions, the animals discover that the commandment reading “No animal shall
kill any other animal” now reads: “No animal shall kill any other animal without
cause.” As with the previous revisions of commandments, the animals blame the
apparent change on their faulty memories—they must have forgotten the final two
words. The animals work even harder throughout the year to rebuild the
windmill. Though they often suffer from hunger and the cold, Squealer reads
continuously from a list of statistics proving that conditions remain far
superior to anything the animals knew under Mr. Jones and that they only
continue to improve.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Napoleon has now taken the
title of “Leader” and has dozens of other complimentary titles as well. Minimus
has written a poem in praise of the Napoleon and inscribed it on the barn wall.
A pile of timber lies unused on the farm, left over from the days of Mr. Jones,
and Napoleon engages in complicated negotiations for the sale of it to either
Mr. Frederick or Mr. Pilkington. When negotiations favor Mr. Frederick, the
pigs teach the animals to hate Mr. Pilkington. When Mr. Pilkington then appears
ready to buy the timber, the pigs teach the animals to hate Mr. Frederick with
equal ferocity. Whichever farm is currently out of favor is said to be the
hiding place of Snowball. Following a slew of propaganda against Mr. Frederick
(during which Napoleon adopts the maxim “Death to Frederick!”), the animals are
shocked to learn that Mr. Frederick eventually comes through as the buyer of
the timber. The pigs talk endlessly about Napoleon’s cleverness, for, rather
than accept a check for the timber, he insists on receiving cash. The
five-pound notes are now in his possession.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Soon the animals complete
the construction of the windmill. But before they can put it to use, Napoleon
discovers to his great outrage that the money Mr. Frederick gave him for the
timber is simply a stack of forgeries. He warns the animals to prepare for the
worst, and, indeed, Mr. Frederick soon attacks Animal Farm with a large group
of armed men. The animals cower as Mr. Frederick’s men plant dynamite at the
base of the windmill and blow the whole structure up. Enraged, the animals
attack the men, driving them away, but at a heavy cost: several of the animals
are killed, and Boxer sustains a serious injury. The animals are disheartened,
but a patriotic flag-raising ceremony cheers them up and restores their faith
somewhat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Not long afterward, the
pigs discover a crate of whisky in the farmhouse basement. That night, the
animals hear singing and revelry from within, followed by the sound of a
terrible quarrel. The next morning the pigs look bleary-eyed and sick, and the
animals hear whisperings that Comrade Napoleon may be dying. By evening,
however, he has recovered. The next night, some of the animals find Squealer
near the barn, holding a paintbrush; he has fallen from a ladder leaned up
against the spot where the Seven Commandments are painted on the barn. The
animals fail to put two and two together, however, and when they discover that
the commandment that they recall as stating “No animal shall drink alcohol”
actually reads “No animal shall drink alcohol to excess,” they once again blame
their memories for being faulty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter IX<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Wearily and weakly, the
animals set about rebuilding the windmill. Though Boxer remains seriously
injured, he shows no sign of being in pain and refuses to leave his work for
even a day. Clover makes him a poultice for his hoof, and he eventually does
seem to improve, but his coat doesn’t seem as shiny as before and his great
strength seems slightly diminished. He says that his only goal is to see the
windmill off to a good start before he retires. Though no animal has yet
retired on Animal Farm, it had previously been agreed that all horses could do
so at the age of twelve. Boxer now nears this age, and he looks forward to a
comfortable life in the pasture as a reward for his immense labors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Food grows ever more
scarce, and all animals receive reduced rations, except for the pigs and the
dogs. Squealer continues to produce statistics proving that, even with this
“readjustment,” the rations exceed those that they received under Mr. Jones.
After all, Squealer says, when the pigs and dogs receive good nourishment, the
whole community stands to benefit. When four sows give birth to Napoleon’s
piglets, thirty-one in all, Napoleon commands that a schoolhouse be built for
their education, despite the farm’s dwindling funds. Napoleon begins ordering
events called Spontaneous Demonstrations, at which the animals march around the
farm, listen to speeches, and exult in the glory of Animal Farm. When other
animals complain, the sheep, who love these Spontaneous Demonstrations, drown
them out with chants of “Four legs good, two legs bad!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">In April, the government
declares Animal Farm a republic, and Napoleon becomes president in a unanimous
vote, having been the only candidate. The same day, the leadership reveals new
discoveries about Snowball’s complicity with Jones at the Battle of the
Cowshed. It now appears that Snowball actually fought openly on Jones’s side
and cried “Long live Humanity!” at the outset of the fight. The battle took
place so long ago, and seems so distant, that the animals placidly accept this
new story. Around the same time, Moses the raven returns to the farm and once
again begins spreading his stories about Sugarcandy Mountain. Though the pigs
officially denounce these stories, as they did at the outset of their
administration, they nonetheless allow Moses to live on the farm without
requiring him to work.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">One day, Boxer’s strength
fails; he collapses while pulling stone for the windmill. The other animals
rush to tell Squealer, while Benjamin and Clover stay near their friend. The
pigs announce that they will arrange to bring Boxer to a human hospital to
recuperate, but when the cart arrives, Benjamin reads the writing on the cart’s
sideboards and announces that Boxer is being sent to a glue maker to be
slaughtered. The animals panic and begin crying out to Boxer that he must
escape. They hear him kicking feebly inside the cart, but he is unable to get
out.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Soon Squealer announces
that the doctors could not cure Boxer: he has died at the hospital. He claims
to have been at the great horse’s side as he died and calls it the most moving
sight he has ever seen—he says that Boxer died praising the glories of Animal
Farm. Squealer denounces the false rumors that Boxer was taken to a glue factory,
saying that the hospital had simply bought the cart from a glue maker and had
failed to paint over the lettering. The animals heave a sigh of relief at this
news, and when Napoleon gives a great speech in praise of Boxer, they feel
completely soothed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Not long after the speech,
the farmhouse receives a delivery from the grocer, and sounds of revelry erupt
from within. The animals murmur among themselves that the pigs have found the
money to buy another crate of whisky—though no one knows where they found the
money.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter X<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Years pass. Many animals
age and die, and few recall the days before the Rebellion. The animals complete
a new windmill, which is used not for generating electricity but for milling
corn, a far more profitable endeavor. The farm seems to have grown richer, but
only the many pigs and dogs live comfortable lives. Squealer explains that the
pigs and dogs do very important work—filling out forms and such. The other
animals largely accept this explanation, and their lives go on very much as
before. They never lose their sense of pride in Animal Farm or their feeling
that they have differentiated themselves from animals on other farms. The
inhabitants of Animal Farm still fervently believe in the goals of the
Rebellion—a world free from humans, with equality for all animals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">One day, Squealer takes the
sheep off to a remote spot to teach them a new chant. Not long afterward, the
animals have just finished their day’s work when they hear the terrified
neighing of a horse. It is Clover, and she summons the others hastily to the
yard. There, the animals gaze in amazement at Squealer walking toward them on
his hind legs. Napoleon soon appears as well, walking upright; worse, he
carries a whip. Before the other animals have a chance to react to the change,
the sheep begin to chant, as if on cue: “Four legs good, two legs better!”
Clover, whose eyes are failing in her old age, asks Benjamin to read the
writing on the barn wall where the Seven Commandments were originally
inscribed. Only the last commandment remains: “all animals are equal.” However,
it now carries an addition: “but some animals are more equal than others.” In
the days that follow, Napoleon openly begins smoking a pipe, and the other pigs
subscribe to human magazines, listen to the radio, and begin to install a
telephone, also wearing human clothes that they have salvaged from Mr. Jones’s
wardrobe.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">One day, the pigs invite
neighboring human farmers over to inspect Animal Farm. The farmers praise the
pigs and express, in diplomatic language, their regret for past
“misunderstandings.” The other animals, led by Clover, watch through a window
as Mr. Pilkington and Napoleon toast each other, and Mr. Pilkington declares
that the farmers share a problem with the pigs: “If you have your lower animals
to contend with,” he says, “we have our lower classes!” Mr. Pilkington notes
with appreciation that the pigs have found ways to make Animal Farm’s animals
work harder and on less food than any other group of farm animals in the
county. He adds that he looks forward to introducing these advances on his own
farm. Napoleon replies by reassuring his human guests that the pigs never
wanted anything other than to conduct business peacefully with their human
neighbors and that they have taken steps to further that goal. Animals on
Animal Farm will no longer address one another as “Comrade,” he says, or pay
homage to Old Major; nor will they salute a flag with a horn and hoof upon it.
All of these customs have been changed recently by decree, he assures the men.
Napoleon even announces that Animal Farm will now be known as the Manor Farm,
which is, he believes, its “correct and original name.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">The pigs and farmers return
to their amiable card game, and the other animals creep away from the window.
Soon the sounds of a quarrel draw them back to listen. Napoleon and Pilkington
have played the ace of spades simultaneously, and each accuses the other of
cheating. The animals, watching through the window, realize with a start that,
as they look around the room of the farmhouse, they can no longer distinguish
which of the cardplayers are pigs and which are human beings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-IN">Orwell uses emphatic
one-line paragraphs to heighten the terror of this betrayal: the succinct
conveyance of “It was a pig walking on his hind legs” and “He carried a whip in
his trotter” drops this stunning information on us without warning, shocking us
as much as it does the animals. Moreover, Orwell’s decision to tell the story
from the animals’ point of view renders his final tableau all the more
terrible. The picture of the pigs and farmers, indistinguishable from one
another, playing cards together is disturbing enough by itself. Orwell,
however, enables us to view this scene from the animals’ perspective—from the
outside looking in. By framing the scene in this way, Orwell points to the
animals’ total loss of power and entitlement: Animal Farm has not created a
society of equals but has simply established a new class of oppressors to
dominate the same class of oppressed—a division embodied, as at the opening of
the novella, by the farmhouse wall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="line-height: 115%;">The final distillation of
the Seven Commandments that appears on the barn—“all animals are equal, but
some are more equal than others”—stands as the last great example of how those
in power manipulate language as an instrument of control. At the beginning of
the novella, the idea of “more equal” would not only have seemed contrary to
the egalitarian socialist spirit of Animal Farm, it would have seemed logically
impossible. But after years of violence, hunger, dishonesty, and fear, the
spirit of Animal Farm seems lost to a distant past. The concept of inherent
equality has given way to notions of material entitlement: Animal Farm as an
institution no longer values dignity and social justice; power alone renders a
creature worthy of rights. By claiming to be “more equal”—an inherently
nonsensical concept—than the other animals, the pigs have distorted the
original ideals of the farm beyond recognition and have literally stepped into
the shoes of their former tyrannical masters.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-45810891564340074462017-05-05T23:33:00.003-07:002017-06-15T01:35:18.297-07:00Regional Literature in Translation: University of Madras Revised Syllabus: BA English [Sem 2]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is Poetry Always Worth When it’s Old?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is
poetry worthy when it’s old?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
is it worthless, then, because it’s new?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reader,
decide yourself if this be true:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fools
suspend judgement, waiting to be told.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kalidasa<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If
learned critics publicly deride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My
verse, well, let them. Not for them I wrought.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One
day a man shall live to share my thought:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For
time is endless and the world is wide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: right; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bhavabhuti<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of
what use is the poet’s poem,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Of what use is the bowman’s dart,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unless
another’s senses reel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When it sticks quivering in the
heart?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scoundrels
without the wit to fit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
word or two of verse together<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Are
daunted not a whit to sit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
judgement on the abstruse poetry of another.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Such
men will listen with attentive mind,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alert
to see how many faults they find.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
if they’re vexed because they fail to grasp the sense<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of
works conceived for readers of intelligence,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They
naturally do not blame their foolishness:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
girl who’s less than perfect always blames the dress.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
man lives long who lives a hundred years:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet
half is sleep, and half the rest again<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Old
age and childhood. For the rest, a man<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lives
close companion to disease and tears,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Losing
his love, working for other men.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where
can joy find a space in this short span?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘Do
not go’, I could say but this is inauspicious.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘All
right, go’ is a loveless thing to say.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘stay
with me’ is imperious. ‘Do as you wish’ suggests<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cold
indifference. And if I say ‘I’ll die<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
you are gone’, you might or might not believe me.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Teach
me, my husband, what I ought to say<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
you go away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Bhartrbari<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Translated from Sanskrit by John Brough<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">குறுந்தொகை</span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA"> </span></strong><strong>3, </strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">இயற்றியவர்</span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA">- </span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">தேவகுலத்தார்</span></strong><strong>, </strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">குறிஞ்சி</span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">திணை</span></strong><strong> – </strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">தலைவி</span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA"> </span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">சொன்னது</span></strong><strong><span lang="AR-SA">
</span></strong><br />
<span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">நிலத்தினும்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">பெரிதே</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">வானினும்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">உயர்ந்தன்று</span><br />
<span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">நீரினும்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ஆரளவின்றே</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span>– <span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">சாரல்</span><br />
<span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">கருங்கோற்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">குறிஞ்சிப்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">பூக்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">கொண்டு</span><br />
<span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">பெருந்தேன்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">இழைக்கும்</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">நாடனொடு</span><span lang="AR-SA"> </span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "latha" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">நட்பே</span><span lang="AR-SA">.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>Kurunthokai 3, Poet Thevakulathār,
Kurinji thinai – What She said<o:p></o:p></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<br />
Bigger than earth, certainly,<br />
higher than the sky,<br />
more unfathomable than the waters<br />
is this love for this man</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
of the mountain slopes<br />
where bees make rich honey<br />
from the flowers of the <em>kurinci</em><br />
that has such black stalks.</div>
<div align="right" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: right;">
<b>Tevakulattar<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Kuruntokai 3<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What She Said<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To her girl friend<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In his country,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summer west wind
blows<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Flute music<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Through bright
beetle-holes in the waving bamboos.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sweet sound of
waterfalls is continuous,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dense as drums.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The urgent lowing
voices of a herd of stags<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Are oboes,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The bees on the
flowering slopes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Become lutes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Excited by such
teeming voices,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">An audience of female
monkeys<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Watches in wonder <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The peacock in the
bamboo hill<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sway and strut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">like a dancer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">making an entrance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">on a festival stage<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He had a garland on his chest,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A strong bow in his grip,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Arrow already chosen,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And he asked which way<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The elephant went<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> With an arrow buried in its side.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He stood at the edge <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Of a ripe-eared millet field.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But, among all the people<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Who saw him standing there,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Why is it<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That I alone<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">lie in bed<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">in this harsh night,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">eyes streaming,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">arms growing lean?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: right; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kapilar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: right; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Akananuru 82.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Gitanjali<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THOU </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">hast made me endless, such is thy pleasure. This frail
vessel thou emptiest<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">again and again,
and fillest it ever with fresh life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This little flute
of a reed thou hast carried over hills and dales, and hast breathed through it
melodies eternally new.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At the immortal
touch of thy hands my little heart loses its limits in joy and gives birth to
utterance ineffable1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy infinite gifts
come to me only on these very small hands of mine. Ages pass, andstill thou
pourest, and still there is room to fill.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">WHEN </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">thou commandest me to sing it seems that my heart would
break with pride; and I look to thy face, and tears come to my eyes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All that is harsh
and dissonant in my life melts into one sweet harmony </span><span style="font-family: "cambria math" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">⎯</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> and my<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">adoration spreads
wings like a glad bird on its flight across the sea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I know thou takest
pleasure in my singing. I know that only as a singer I come before thy
presence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I touch by the edge
of the far spreading wing of my song thy feet which I could never to reach.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drunk with the joy of singing I
forget myself and call thee friend who art my lord.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I KNOW </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">not how thou singest, my master! I ever listen in silent
amazement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The light of thy
music illumines the world. The life breath of thy music runs from sky to sky. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The holy stream of
thy music breaks through all stony obstacles and rushes on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My heart longs to
join in thy song, but vainly struggles for a voice. I would speak, but speech
breaks not into song, and I cry out baffled. Ah, thou hast made my heart
captive in the endless meshes of thy music, my master!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ineffable</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: too great or intense to be expressed in words;
unutterable<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LIFE </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">of my life, I shall ever try to keep my body pure,
knowing that thy living touch is upon all my limbs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I shall ever try to
keep all untruths out from my thoughts, knowing that thou art that truth which
has kindled the light of reason in my mind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I shall ever try to
drive all evils away from my heart and keep my love in flower, knowing that
thou hast thy seat in the inmost shrine of my heart.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And it shall be my
endeavour to reveal thee in my actions, knowing it is thy power gives me
strength to act.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I ASK </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">for a moment's indulgence to sit by thy side. The works
that I have in hand I will<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">finish afterwards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Away from the sight
of thy face my heart knows no rest nor respite, and my work<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">becomes an endless
toil in a shoreless sea of toil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To-day the summer
has come at my window with its sighs and murmurs; and the bees are plying their
minstrelsy at the court of the flowering grove.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Now it is time to
sit quiet, face to face with thee, and to sing dedication of life in this
silent and overflowing leisure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rabindranath Tagore<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: right; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Six
Rubaiyaats<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mirza
Arif<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If an old tree-trunk sends out a tender sprout, <br />
Will one who knows give it a different name? <br />
The old order has just been pruned, no more, <br />
An idiot may, perhaps, call it democracy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
Bullets chase a poor fellow; bread eludes his grasp, <br />
Even in freedom helpless, hapless he <br />
Sheeplike must submit to one who kills. <br />
Butcher alone has changed; the cut is as it used to be. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
Will Hail, hail and public audiences aught avail? <br />
Will mere bits of raw thread ever dam the wounds? <br />
As long as the knife-blade reaches not the abscess-root <br />
Will the commissions remedy the nation's cancer, ah?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
minister's doggie frolics up the sofa sets, <br />
Some kiss it; some others embrace it. <br />
Behold the labourer, ah, still with the rope on his <br />
shoulder, furrows on his
brow, <br />
Belly sunk in, heart aburn, liver heating up.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
cool capitalist you, 0 Chinar! <br />
Green you look in spring, turn bloody in autumn. <br />
The empty-bellied poor you lull to steep. <br />
What fire, then, is it that consumes you within? <br />
This, the Hindus day; that, the Afghans. O! <br />
Different arc the days of Bhagavan and Rahman, <br />
Blessed indeed the day when people say our own day has come. <br />
Arif aspires to see the day of Man adawn. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-16716071838468914182017-05-05T23:31:00.001-07:002017-05-06T00:00:17.872-07:00Allied Paper II: Background to the study of English Lit II - University of Madras BA English. [Sem 2]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Allied Paper II: Background to the
Study of English Literature<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit I: Drama<span class="srtitle"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span class="srtitle"><b><span style="border: none 1.0pt; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">WELL-MADE PLAY</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (Drama of Ideas - Shaw and Ibsen)<span class="srtitle"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></b></div>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Well-made
play (French pièce bien faite) is a type of play, constructed
according to certain strict technical principles, that dominated the stages of
Europe and the United States for most of the 19th century and continued to
exert influence into the 20th.The technical formula of the well-made play,
developed around 1825 by the French playwright Eugene Scribe, called for
complex and highly artificial plotting, a build-up of suspense, a climatic
scene in which all problems are resolved, and a happy ending. Originating in France as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>pièce bien faite</i>, the well-made
play is a style of dramatic writing characterized by a meticulous,
methodological purposiveness of plotting. The logically precise construction of
the well-made play is typified by a number of conventions. The plot is most
often based on a withheld secret—known to the audience but unknown to the
characters—which, when revealed at the climax, reverses the fortunes of the
play's hero. During the course of the play, the overall pattern of the drama is
reflected in the movement of the individual acts, in which a steadily mounting
suspense is achieved through the battle of wits between the hero and the
villain. The hero's fortune fluctuates during his conflict with the adversary
until finally, at the climax, the secret is revealed in an obligatory scene (<i>scène
à faire</i>) and the hero is benefitted in the final<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dénouement</i>, or resolution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writers and Works <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drama
was to involve the direct observation of human behaviour; therefore, there was
a thrust to use contemporary settings and time periods, and it was to deal with
everyday life and problems as subjects. Conventional romantic conflicts were a
staple subject of such plays (for example, the problem <span style="background: white;">of a pretty girl who must choose between a wealthy, unscrupulous suitor
and a poor but honest young man).<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref35964"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/suspense-art"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Suspense</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">was
created by misunderstandings between characters, mistaken identities, secret
information (the poor young man is really of noble birth), lost or stolen
documents, and similar contrivances. Later critics, such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref970195"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Emile-Zola"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Émile
Zola</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref970196"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Bernard-Shaw"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">George Bernard Shaw</span></a><span style="background: white;">,
denounced Scribe’s work and that of his successor,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref970193"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Victorien-Sardou"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Victorien Sardou</span></a><span style="background: white;">, for
exalting the mechanics of playmaking at the expense of honest characterizations
and serious content, but both playwrights were enormously popular in their day.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://aol.bartleby.com/65/ib/Ibsen-He.html" target="_newC"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Henrik Ibsen</span></b></a><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1828-1906)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In Norway, </span><a href="http://aol.bartleby.com/65/ib/Ibsen-He.html" target="_newC"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Henrik Ibsen</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> is considered to be the father of modern
realistic drama. His plays attacked society’s values and dealt with
unconventional subjects within the form of the well-made play (causally
related). Ibsen perfected the well-made play formula; and by using a familiar
formula made his plays, with a very shocking subject matter, acceptable. He
discarded soliloquies, asides, etc. Exposition in the plays was motivated,
there were causally related scenes, inner psychological motivation was
emphasized, the environment had an influence on characters’ personalities, and
all the things characters did and all of things the characters used revealed
their socio-economic milieu. He became a model for later realistic writers.
Among the subjects addressed by Ibsen in his plays are: euthanasia, the role of women, war and business, and syphilis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
of Ibsen's Plays:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ghosts</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">—1881—dealt
with the concept of the sins of the father transferring to the son,
resulting in syphilis.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pillars
of Society </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">– 1877 – dealt with war and
business.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hedda
Gabbler – </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1890 – a powerful woman takes her
life at the end of the play to get away from her boredom with society.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
Doll’s House</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – 1879 – Nora leaves her
husband Torvald and her children at the end of the play; often considered
"the slam heard around the world," Nora’s action must have been
very shocking to the Victorian audience.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Later
in life, Ibsen turned to more symbolic and abstract dramas; but his
"realism" affected others, and helped lead to realistic theatre,
which has become, despite variations and rejections against it, the predominant
form of theatre even today.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>George Bernard Shaw
(1856-1950)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The Irish-born playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw
(1856-1950), the leading playwright of modern Britain, wrote frankly and
satirically on political and social topics such as class, war, feminism, and
the Salvation Army, in plays such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Arms
and the Man</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1894),<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Major Barbara</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a href="http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/1905" title="1905">1905</a>),
and, most famously,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/Pygmalion" title="Pygmalion"><i>Pygmalion</i></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a href="http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/1913" title="1913">1913</a>).
His work introduced the theater of ideas to the English stage; where<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Ibsen</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>turned
melodrama into naturalism, Shaw parodied melodrama in order to develop an
intellectual comedy of manners.<span class="apple-converted-space"> He
m</span>ade fun of societies notion using for the purpose of educating
and changing. His plays tended to show the accepted attitude, then demolished
that attitude while showing his own solutions.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>Some of </b><b>Bernard
Shaw’s Plays</b></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Arms
and the Man</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1894) – about love and war
and honour.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mrs.
Warren’s Profession</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – prostitution.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Major
Barbara</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1905) – a munitions
manufacturer gives more to the world (jobs, etc.) while the Salvation Army
only prolongs of the status quo.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pygmalion</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1913)
– shows the transforming of a flower girl into a society woman, and
exposes the phoniness of society. The musical My Fair Lady was
based on this play.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">EXISTENTIAL DRAMA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Existentialism
emerged from the early 20th century as a philosophical and cultural movement
(theology, drama, art, literature and psychology) wherein the experiences of
the individual are at the center of understanding human existence, rather than
moral or scientific thought. It was a rejection of systemic modes of thought
associated with earlier philosophy, religion or romantic belief, emphasizing a
reliance on authentic experience rather than external idea. <span class="hvr"><span style="background: white;">It stresses the individual’s position as a self-determining
agent responsible for his or her own choices. It is an emphasis upon man’s
creating his own nature as well as the importance of personal freedom,
decision, and commitment. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="Themes_in_Existentialism"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Themes
in Existentialism</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Here is a list of themes that are important in
existentialism. They are not all taken up by every existentialist thinker and
they are not entirely consistent with one another. </div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>1. Importance of the individual: </b>The leading question
in this case is "What does it mean to be existing as a human being?"
This question leads out in a number of directions.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>2. Importance of choice: </b>We are constituted by our
decisions. In fact, being human sometimes involves decisions that transcend the
realm of moral and conventional concerns.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>3. Anxiety regarding life, death, contingencies, and
extreme situations: </b>Both the chance events and extreme situations of life
make evident the threat of non-being and cause us anxiety.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>4. Meaning and absurdity</b>: Sartre spoke of an
unfulfillable desire for complete fulfillment and thereby expressed the meaning
of absurdity.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>5. Authenticity: </b>Sartre’s opposition to bad-faith (or
self-deception) is an example of what is meant by authenticity. We need to face
up to our situation rather than making things worse with self-deceptive
approaches to religion, metaphysics, morality, or science.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>6. Social criticism: </b>Many existentialists
deconstructed social conventions and practices. They are forms of hiding and
expressions of fear and ignorance. Existentialist literature often carried out
this unmasking of convention and social patterns with enormous effect
(especially in the novels of Camus).</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>7. Importance of personal relations: </b>It must be said
that the existentialist imperative to be an individual is front and center but
another imperative becomes important in some existantialists (especially
Buber): be an individual-in-community. Religious existentialists see the
God-human relation as the ground of all relations between human beings.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>8. Atheism and Religion: </b>Here is one of the greatest
disagreements among existentialists, testifying perhaps to the inescapable
vagueness of the field of life within which human beings must make decisions
that create meaning. Though the nature of that field of life and its ground are
dramatically contested, all existentialists hold that a decision in relation to
it is the key issue for human beings.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>9. Religion</b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Religion is a deeply contested point within existentialism.
While some existentialists reject the reality of God, other existentialists
have no problem with God and see an appropriate tension between divine and
human freedom. However, there is some agreement: all existentialists tend to be
suspicious of religion as such (meaning religious organizations and religious
systems).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writers and Works <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Soren Kierkegaard was the first philosopher to actually
consider that he wrote about Existentialism. Since his time existential
approaches to philosophy about life have grown very greatly in influence and
also appeared in several forms influenced by numerous writers and
thinkers. Soren Kierkegaard has been called the father of existentialism.
Existentialism is a non-rigorous form of philosophical enquiry into human
nature and the human predicament.
Everything else in existence merely exists; humans are aware of their
existence, and therefore have the potential to understand it and control it. We
are self-creating creatures: we can choose what we want to be, and choose to be
it. The moment of choice, the leap into existence, comes between two fixed
points: the nothingness from which we come and the nothingness to which we
return after we die. Our glory is the self-defining choice; our agony is that
we need to make it. The idea was formulated by Kierkegaard in the first half of
the 19th century, was developed by Husserl a century later, and had enormous
prominence in the 1940s and 1950s, particularly in the work of Jean-Paul
Sartre. In literature, the chief existentialist writer was Jean-Paul Sartre. In
his (autobiographical) novels Nausea and the three-volume The
Roads to Freedom, and in such plays as The Flies and Huis Clos,
he examined the idea that a Man is a useless passionate and the plight of the
passive hero longing but unable to contrive some self-defining act. Other
French writers took up the style, notably Albert Camus. The quest for identity
underlies much European drama and prose fiction of the 1950s and beyond, and
existentialist thinking underlies (but does not dominate) works as diverse as
Gnter Grass's The Flounder, John Updike's Rabbit and the plays of
Samuel Beckett. <em>Waiting for Godot</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is often called an
existentialist drama, which in some ways it is, but Beckett never ascribed the
philosophy to his work. In the world of the play, devoid of systems, purpose
and markers of time, all that is left is to simply exist. The fact that
Vladimir and Estragon do little except exist highlights some existential
themes. It is more accurately described as absurdism, which contains the idea
that there is no meaning found in the world beyond the meaning we give it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">COMEDY OF MENACE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The word ‘menace’ means as a noun ‘A threatening quality’ or
‘a dangerous or troublesome person or thing’ and as a verb it calls ‘threaten’.
"Comedy of menace" was a term first used to describe Harold Pinter's
plays by the drama critic Irving Wardle. He borrowed the term from the subtitle
of one of David Campton's plays, The Lunatic View: A Comedy of Menace. A comedy
is a humorous play which contains variations on the elements of surprise, incongruity,
conflict, repetitiveness, and the effect of opposite expectations and so on in
order to amuse and make the audience laugh. A menace is something which
threatens to cause harm, evil or injury which seems quite incompatible with the
idea of a comedy. However, as The Birthday Party shows, it is quite possible
for a playwright to create both humour and menace in the same play, and even at
the same time, in order to produce certain effects and to transmit ideas to the
audience. Comedy of menace can also be called “Dark comedy”. </div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Comedy of menace suggests that although they are funny, they
are also frightening or menacing in a vague and undefined way. The phrase
“comedy of menace” as a standalone description inspires both positive and
negative feelings. Comedy is used during a dangerous situation to cause
audiences to draw judgments about a particular character or communication. The
words used are the focus of often powerful stories that create conflicting
emotions from its audience. The title “Comedy of Menace” immediately brings
contradictions to mind, because comedy is generally something that makes people
laugh, and the word "menace" implies something threatening. Quite
literally, then, this phrase involves laughing at an ominous situation.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>Writers and Works <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Harold Pinter has used “Comedy of menace” in his
plays such as Birthday Party, The Room, and A Slight Ache. Pinter’s comedies of
menace have a rather simplistic setting; they might focus on one or two
powerful images and usually are set in just one room. A powerful force that
isn’t specifically defined to the audience threatens characters in the plays.
Audiences focus on the communications between the characters and generate the
feeling and gist of the play from the conversations. Some plays are able to
successfully mingle drama with comedy. One specific example from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>The
Birthday Party</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is
a character joking around about being in a menacing situation while cleaning
his gun to deal with the threat. The goal of such works is to generate tension
around the situation or to alter the views of an audience about a particular
character; after all, someone joking while planning to shoot another person is
generally not a trustworthy person. </div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Pinter himself has been quoted as saying he’s never been able
to write a happy play, and that a situation can be both true and false.
Summarizing his plays as comedy plays might be a misunderstanding; most critics
described his characters with negative connotations. By creating humor around a
very dramatic or tense situation, audiences are left feeling confused at the
end, because of the range of emotions experienced.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">KITCHEN-SINK DRAMA<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;">Kitchen sink realism or kitchen
sink drama is a term coined to describe a British cultural movement that
developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s in theatre, art, novels, film and
television plays, whose ‘heroes’ usually could be described as angry young men.
It used a style of social realism, which often depicted the domestic situations
of working-class Britons living in cramped rented accommodation and spending
their off-hours drinking in grimy pubs, to explore social issues and political
controversies.</span></em></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;">The films, plays and novels
employing this style are set frequently in poorer industrial areas in the North
of England, and use the rough-hewn speaking accents and slang heard in those
regions. </span></em><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></em></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
The kitchen-sink drama is placed in an ordinary domestic
setting and typically tells a relatively mundane family story. Family tensions
often come to the fore with realistic conflict between husband and wife, parent
and child, between siblings and with the wider community. The family may also
pull together in unity against outer forces that range from the rent-collector
to rival families.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 5.75pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Kitchen sink
dramas may also framed as 'serious art', intending to impress rather than
entertain. They may capture social setting for posterity and gain admiration in
later days by students of history. They may even be a cathartic act by their
authors, expunging the traumas of a deprived childhood. Kitchen sink drama is a
genre in which the British seem to specialize. Americans prefer their soaps and
dramas to be a bit less dismal. There was in particularly a group of 'angry
young men' in the 1960s UK playwright scene who specialised in such plays.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>Writers and Works <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;">The film It Always Rains on
Sunday (1947) is a precursor of the genre, and the John Osborne play Look Back
in Anger (1956) is thought of as the first of the idiom. The gritty
love-triangle of Look Back in Anger, for example, takes place in a cramped,
one-room flat in the English Midlands. The conventions of the genre have
continued into the 2000s, finding expression in such television shows as
Coronation Street and East Enders.</span></em><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></em></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i>A Taste of Honey</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">is written by a British dramatist</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelagh_Delaney" title="Shelagh Delaney"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Shelagh Delaney</span></a>. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">It was initially intended as a novel, but she turned it into a play
because she hoped to revitalise British theatre and to address social issues
that she felt were not being presented.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">A Taste of Honey</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">is set in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salford,_Greater_Manchester" title="Salford, Greater Manchester"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Salford</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">in North West England in the 1950s. It tells the story
of Jo, a seventeen-year-old</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">working class</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">girl, and her mother, Helen, who is presented as crude
and sexually indiscriminate.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">A Taste of Honey</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">comments
on, and puts into question, class, race, gender and sexual orientation in
mid-twentieth-century Britain. It became known as a "</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_sink_realism" title="Kitchen sink realism"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">kitchen sink</span></a><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">" play, part of a genre revolutionising British
theatre at the time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i>The Glass Menagerie</i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Glass_Menagerie#cite_note-GlassMenagerie2011-1"></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">is a four-character</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_play" title="Memory play"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">memory play</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">by</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee_Williams" title="Tennessee Williams"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Tennessee Williams</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">that premiered in 1944 and catapulted Williams from
obscurity to fame. The play has strong autobiographical elements, featuring
characters based on Williams himself, his histrionic mother, and his mentally
fragile sister Rose.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="exa"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="dis"></a><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PROBLEM
PLAY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The name problem play is generally given to plays which are
about social issues, for example, those of such 19th-century European writers
as Dumas, Ibsen and Shaw, and such authors as Galsworthy, Hellman, Miller and
so on. Often, though not always, problem plays use the conventions of
naturalism, depicting ordinary people in everyday clothes and settings, using
ordinary speech. Many problem plays also conform to the conventions of the
well-made play, devised in 19th-century France. In this, the drama begins with
an exposition which sets the scene and gradually reveals the problem or secret
at the heart of the plot. There follows a series of alarms, excursions and
developments, often involving the revelation of some crucial secret which has
so far not been known to one of the central characters. The moment of
disclosure of this secret, the turning-point beyond which no lives will be the
same again often the problem is resolved by the destruction or exaltation of
the leading character is a main climax. It is followed by an unwinding of the
action, recapitulating and revisiting what has gone before in the light of what
the characters now know, and there is often a further surprise at the moment of
curtain-fall. The structure is analogous to sonata-form in classical music. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writers
and Works <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It can engender comedy or tragedy: Ibsen's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>A Doll's House</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and Oscar Wilde's The Importance of
Being Earnest are outstanding examples of the well-made play. The coincidence
of the two structures, problem plays and well-made plays, led to some of the
finest European drama between 1850 and 1950, as well as to some of the worst,
and it is still regarded by some bourgeois audiences as the ultimate theatrical
experience: a play about ordinary people with a convincing, and clearly comprehensible,
emotional and intellectual structure.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">DIDACTIC DRAMA (PROPAGANDA PLAY)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy
in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and
literature ought to convey information and instructions along with pleasure and
entertainment. Didacticism describes a type of literature that is written to
inform or instruct the reader, especially in moral or political lessons. While
they are also meant to entertain the audience, the aesthetics in a didactic
work of literature are subordinate to the message it imparts. In modern times,
“didactic” has become a somewhat pejorative way to describe a work of
literature, as contemporary authors generally do not attempt to teach moral
lessons through their writing. However, the original definition of didacticism
did not carry this negative<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.literarydevices.com/connotation/"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">connotation</span></a>.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
The word didacticism comes from the Ancient
Greek word<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;">didaktikos</span></em>,
which meant “relating to teaching, education, or wisdom.” Didacticism in
literature aims at offering something additional to its readers than merely
intending to offer pleasure and entertainment. Some critics may argue that didacticism
may reduce literature to a tool for boring instructions but nevertheless it
definitely gives readers a chance to improve their conduct and comprehend evils
which may lead him astray. The word didactic is frequently used for those
literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and
are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic,
therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that
are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are
entertaining as well as didactic.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Morality plays of medieval Europe were perhaps the best
exemplars of didactic literature. These plays were a type of theatrical
performance which made use of allegorical characters to teach the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/audience/">audience</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/moral/">moral</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>lesson. The most
common themes that that were presented in morality plays were what are commonly
known as the seven deadly sins: pride, lust, greed, envy, wrath, sloth and
gluttony. Another<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://literarydevices.net/theme/">theme</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that such plays
exploited was that repentance and redemption was possible for a person even
when that person intentionally gives in to temptation. Historically, morality
plays were a transitional step that lay between Christian mystery plays and the
secular plays of the Renaissance theatre.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writers
and Works <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
Every textbook and “how-to” book is
an example of didacticism, as their explicit purpose is to instruct and
educate. Books written for children also often have a didactic intent, as they
are often created to teach children about moral values. Religious sermons are
also usually examples of didacticism, as the preacher is intending to use the
religious text to give the congregation moral guidance. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">While didacticism in literature is generally frowned up nowadays, it was
a key feature of many ancient texts, and remained popular up until about the
18th century. It was seen as a benefit for the reading audience to have these
texts to use as moral guidance. While there are examples of didacticism in more
recent literature, they are fewer and further between. Edgar Allen Poe even
went so far as to refer to didacticism as the worst thing an author could do in
his treatise</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">The Poetic Principal</span></em><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">.
Poe and others considered didacticism to be a detriment to the literature which
it burdened down.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
John Bunyan’s novel<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;">The
Pilgrim’s Progress</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is
a famous didacticism example. Bunyan makes the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.literarydevices.com/allegory/"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">allegory</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and lesson he is
trying to impart clear: the main character’s name is Christian and he travels
from the City of Destruction on his way to Mount Zion. Along the way, Christian
comes up against many obstacles, and his journey through and around these
obstacles helps to instruct the reading audience how to overcome obstacles
themselves by leading moral lives. Bunyan makes the references to Biblical
stories obvious so that readers could more easily grasp the moral lessons he
was trying to teach therein.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
Charles Dickens’s novel<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; padding: 0in;">Oliver
Twist</span></em>, about an orphaned boy in poverty, is an example of a
Victorian didactic novel. Dickens wanted to dramatize the difficulties that
poor people had in society, thereby making the reading public more sympathetic.
The point of didacticism in this novel was to change popular opinion and
encourage a more moral viewpoint on the part of citizens of Dickens’s day. In
the above excerpt, Dickens describes the horrible options available to poor
people, which were either to die slowly inside the workhouse or quickly outside
of it. Though poor people had some access to food inside the workhouse, it was
meager and accompanied by such grueling work that they could not survive those
conditions. Dickens wanted to motivate his reading public to more fully
consider the issues in his day surrounding poverty.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ONE-ACT PLAY <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<h2 style="margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Definition,
Origin and Characteristics <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
one-act play is a short piece of drama that consists of only one act. It
usually has one or more scenes, but does not exceed one act. It is similar to a
short story in its limitations. There is a complete drama within one act. It is
brief, condensed, and single in effect. One situation or episode
is presented, permitting no minor plots or side actions that may distract
attention for the single purpose and effect being developed. Characters are few
in number, quickly introduced, and very limited in character development.
Dialogue and plot must carry the action forward smoothly and quickly. In
recent years the 10-minute play known as "</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_drama" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">flash drama</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"
has emerged as a popular sub-</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">genre</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> of the one-act play, especially in
writing competitions.<span style="background: white;"> The origin of the one-act
play may be traced to the very beginning of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama" title="Drama"><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">drama</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece"><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ancient Greece</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclops_(play)" title="Cyclops (play)"><i><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cyclops</span></i></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyr_play" title="Satyr play"><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">satyr play</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides"><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Euripides</span></a><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, is an early
example. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like all drama, one act plays are made up of the
same elements that are necessary for short stories : Theme, Plot, Character,
and dialogue.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
a full-length play, all characters, plots, and subplots need to point to and
support the theme. The one-act is not much different, except the subplots will
likely be absent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Plot</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
is much different in the one-act than in the full-length. For a full-length
play, the plot is the series and sequence of events that lead the hero (and the
audience) on the journey. In a one-act play there is really only time for one
significant event. This is the determining place for the hero, where all is won
or lost. Events that lead up to this must be incorporated into the script
without the benefit of the audience seeing them. And any events that follow
must be inferred or understood by the audience that they will occur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Character</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There
is really only enough time in this to get to know one character well -- the
hero. In the short time that the one-act play is going, it is the hero's event
that the audience is experiencing; again, there isn't time for more than that.
Some characteristics of the supporting characters, including the antagonist,
will need to be portrayed for the story to move forward, but it is the
character of the protagonist that is vital to the story line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dialogue</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Economy
is the key here. Each line must be crafted carefully to focus on the theme, the
incident, and the character of the protagonist. The dialogue need not be terse,
but must be concise and full of meaning. Any lines that do not point to the
focus of the play should be carefully considered whether they are needed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writers
and Works <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Albee" title="Edward Albee"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Edward
Albee</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> -- </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goat,_or_Who_Is_Sylvia%3F" title="The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (2002)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Samuel
Beckett</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krapp%27s_Last_Tape" title="Krapp's Last Tape"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Krapp's
Last Tape</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1958)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anton
Chekhov</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Marriage_Proposal" title="A Marriage Proposal"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
Marriage Proposal</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1890)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Horovitz" title="Israel Horovitz"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Israel Horovitz</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(play)" title="Line (play)"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Line</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1974)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Eugène Ionesco</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bald_Soprano" title="The Bald Soprano"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Bald Soprano</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1950)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller" title="Arthur Miller"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Arthur
Miller</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Memory_of_Two_Mondays" title="A Memory of Two Mondays"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
Memory of Two Mondays</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1955)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">August Strindberg</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pariah_(play)" title="Pariah (play)"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pariah</span></i></a><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1889), </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motherly_Love&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Motherly Love (page does not exist)"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Motherly
Love</span></i></a><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1892),
and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_First_Warning&action=edit&redlink=1" title="The First Warning (page does not exist)"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
First Warning</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1892)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Wilder" title="Thornton Wilder"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thornton Wilder</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> – </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Long_Christmas_Dinner" title="The Long Christmas Dinner"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Long Christmas Dinner</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1931)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormac_McCarthy" title="Cormac McCarthy"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cormac McCarthy</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> -
</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunset_Limited" title="The Sunset Limited"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Sunset Limited</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (2006)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit 2: The Novel <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BILDUNGSROMAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-
(Formation Novel) This is a term more or less synonymous with Erziehungsroman
which literally means an “upbringing” or “education” novel. It refers to a novel which is an account of
the youthful development of a hero or heroine. This describes the processes by
which maturity is achieved through the various ups and downs of life. Wieland’s
<i>Agathon</i> (1765-6) is taken to be the
earliest example. The most famous examples are: Goethe’s <i>Die Leiden des JungenWerthers</i> (1774) and his <i>Wilhelm MeistersLehrjahre</i> (1795-6) and became well known in Britain
through Thomas Carlyle’s translation. Novels in English that fall into this
category are Daniel Defoe’s <i>Moll Flanders</i>
(1722), Henry Fielding’s <i>Tom Jones</i>
(1749), Jane Austen’s <i>Emma</i> (1816),
Charles Dickens’ <i>David Copperfield </i>(1849-50),
George Meredith’s <i>The Adventures ofHenry
Richmond</i> (1871) and Samuel Butler’s <i>The
Way of All Flesh</i> (1903).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">EPISTOLARY
NOVEL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Epistolary Novel is a
kind of novel in the form of letters. It was a particularform, popular in the
eighteenth century. Among the more famous examples are: Samuel Richardson’s <i>Pamela</i> (1740) and <i>Clarissa Harlowe</i> (1747, 1748); Smollet’s<i>Humphry Clinker</i> (1771); Rousseau’s <i>La Nouvelle Héloïse</i> (1761); and Laclos’ <i>Les Liaisons dangereuses</i> (1782). Less well known are Harriet Lee’s <i>Errors of Innocence</i> (1786), John Moore’s
<i>Mordaunt</i>(1800) and Swinburne’s <i>Love’s Cross Currents</i> (1877). The
epistolary novel slowly fell out of use in the nineteenth century. By the time
Jane Austen popularized the technique of the omniscient narrator, the epistolary
form had become somewhat archaic. For example, Jane Austen’s <i>Pride and Prejudice</i> (1813) was
originally written as an epistolary novel, but Austen rewrote it using a
third-person omniscient narrator. However, Mark Harris’ <i>Wake Up, Stupid</i> (1959) and John Barth’s <i>Letters</i> (1979) are interesting modern examples. It is usual for
letters to make up some part of a novel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">STREAM
OF CONSCIOUSNESS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
term “stream of consciousness” is coined by William James in <i>Principles ofPsychology</i> (1890) to denote
the flow of inner experiences. It refers to the technique which seeks to depict
the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind.It is also
known as Interior monologue. Lines in Laurence Sterne’s <i>TristramShandy</i> (1760-67) resemble this technique. Lengthy
self-communing passages have been found in some nineteenth century novels are
also close to interior monologue.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
interior monologue has been highly developed in LeutnantGustl, a satire on the
official code of military honour by Arthur Schnitzler, a German playwright and
novelist. However, it wasEdouardDujardin in <i>Les
Laurierssont coupés</i> (1888) used the technique in a way that proved
influential. James Joyce exploited the possibilities and took the technique
almost to a point ne plus ultra in <i>Ulysses</i>
(1922), which presents an account of the experiences (the actions, thoughts,
feelings) of two men, Leopold Bloom and Stephen Daedalus, during the
twenty-four hours of 16 June 1904, in Dublin. The beginning of James Joyce’s <i>A Portrait of the Artist as A Young Man</i>
(1916) is an early indication of his interest in this technique. Meantime,
Dorothy Richardson had begun to compile her twelve-volume <i>Pilgrimage</i> (1915-67) and Marcel Proust was at work on the equally
ambitious <i>A la recherchu du temps perdu</i>
(1913-27). Henry James and Dostoievski had already indicated, through long
passages of introspective writing, that they were aware of something like the
stream of consciousness technique.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Since
the 1920s many writers have learned from Joyce and emulated him. Virginia
Woolf’s <i>Mrs Dalloway</i> (1925), <i>To the Lighthouse</i> (1927) and William
Faulkner’s <i>The Sound and the Fury</i>
(1931) are two of the most distinguished developers of the stream of
consciousness method.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PICARESQUE
NOVEL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
word “picaro” mean “rogue.” It tells the life of a knave or picaroon who is the
servant of several masters. Through his experience the picaroon satirizes the
society in which he lives. The picaresque novel originated in the sixteenth
century Spain, the earliest example being the anonymous Lazarillo de Tormes
(1553). The two most famous Spanish authors of picaresque novels were Mateo
Alemán, who wrote Guzmán de Alfarache (1599-1604), and Francisco Quevedo, who
wrote La vidadelBuscón (1626). Both books were widely read in Europe. Other picaresque
novels include: Thomas Nashe’s<i>TheUnfortunate
Traveller</i> (1594), Lesage’s Gil Blas (1715), Daniel Defoe’s <i>Moll Flanders</i> (1722), Henry Fielding’s <i>Jonathan Wild</i> (1743) and Smollett’s <i>Roderick Random</i> (1748). A more recent
example is Thomas Mann’s unfinished <i>Confessions
of Felix Krull</i> (1954). The German term for this kind of story is
Räuberroman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Avant
–Garde<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The term “avant-garde” is an important and much used
term in the history of art and literature. It clearly has a military origin
(advance guard) and as applied to art and literature denotes exploration,
pathfinding, innovation and invention; something new, something advanced (ahead
of its time) and revolutionary. During the last quarter of the nineteenth
century, the term and concept appear in both cultural and political contexts.
Gradually the cultural-artistic meaning displaced the socio-political meaning.
It has been commonplace to refer to avant-garde art or literature. Symbolist
poets like Verlaine, Rimbaud and Mallarmé as the first members of the avant-garde.
The playwrights of the Theatre of the Absurd and novelists like Alain
Robbe-Grillet, Michel Butor, Nathalie Sarraute
also form part of the avant-garde movement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical
Novel<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical Novel is a
form of fictional narrative which reconstructs history and re-creates it
imaginatively. Both historical and fictional characters may appear. Through
writing fiction, the good historical novelist researches his or her chosen
period thoroughly and strives for verisimilitude. In Britain this genre appears
to have developed form Mme de La Fayette’s <i>Princesse
de Cléves</i> (1678) and then via the Gothic novel. Much Gothic fiction was set
in the Middle Ages. Maria Edgeworth’s<i>Castle
Rackrent</i> (1800), usually taken to be the first example of a regional novel
in English. It is the first fully fledged historical novel. She followed this
with Adelaide in 1806. Jane Porter published<i>The
Scottish Chiefs</i> (1810) and <i>The
Pastor’s Fireside</i> (1815). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="_GoBack"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In 1814 Sir Walter Scott published <i>Waverley</i>, the first of his many novels.
Scott remains the supreme example of the historical novelist in English
Literature. As a result of his massive contribution to the genre its popularity
spread during the nineteenth century. For example, Thackeray’s <i>Vanity Fair</i> (1847-8), Charles Kingsley’s
<i>Hypatia</i>(1853), <i>Westward Ho</i>! (1855) and <i>Hereward
the Wake</i> (1866); Charles Reade’s <i>The
Cloister and the Hearth</i> (1861) and Griffith Gaunt (1866), Arthur Conan
Doyle’s <i>Micah Clarke</i> (1889), <i>The White Company</i> (1891), <i>The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard</i> (1896)
and <i>Rodney Stone</i> (1896), Stanley
Weyman’s<i>A Gentleman of France</i> (1893),
<i>The Red Cockade</i> (1895), <i>Under the RedRobe (</i>1896), <i>Count Hannibal</i> (1901) and <i>Chippinge</i> (1906), Maurice Hewlett’s <i>The Forest Lovers</i> (1898) and <i>The Queen’s Quair</i> (1904). Charles
Dickens, Bulwer Lytton, George Eliot and Thomas Hardy also wrote historical
novels. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In this twentieth
century, this kind of fiction has not been so popular but there have been a
number of distinguished practitioners. For example Robert Graves, author of <i>I Claudius</i> (1934) and several others;
Georgette Heyer who wrote a great many historical romances set in the Regency
period such as <i>Devil’s Cub</i>(1934), <i>Regency Buck</i> (1935), Faro’s <i>Daughter </i>(1941), Naomi Mitchison, author
of <i>The Corn King</i> and <i>The Spring Queen</i> (1931) and <i>The Blood of the Martyrs</i> (1939), Mary
Renault, the author of <i>The Lastof the
Wine</i> (1956), <i>The King Must Die </i>(1958),<i>The Bull from the Sea</i> (1962) and <i>Funeral Games</i> (1981), William Golding,
the author of <i>The Inheritors</i> (1955), <i>The Spire</i>
(1964) and the trilogy <i>Rites of Passage</i>
(1980), <i>Close Quarters</i> (1987) and <i>Fire Down Below</i> (1989) and J.G.Farrell
who wrote the outstanding novel <i>The Siege
of Krishnapur</i> (1973). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Other
historical novelists of note have been Charlotte Yonge, Carola Oman, Patrick
O’Brian, Mary Stewart and Alfred Duggan. Among European historical novelists
Balzac, Stendhal, Thomas Mann and Ivo Andrić have been pre-eminent. Tolstoy’s <i>War and Peace</i> is the greatest of the
Russian historical novels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Science
Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The term “science fiction” was first
used, it seems, in 1851, the year of the Great Exhibition, in William Wilson’s <i>A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old
Subject</i>.A science fiction story is a narrative of short story, novella or
novel length. Attempting to define it,M.H.Abrams says, “is applied to those
narratives in which—unlike in pure<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">fantasy</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">—an
explicit attempt is made to render plausible the fictional world by<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">reference to known or imagined
scientific principles, or to a projected advance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">in technology, or to a drastic change in
the organization of society” (279). Mary Shelley’s <i>Frankenstein</i> (1818) is often considered a precursor of science
fiction. But, basing a work of fiction on a concrete scientific principle did
not occur until later in the nineteenth century through the writings of Jules
Verne’s <i>Journey to the Center of the
Earth</i> and H.G.Wells’ <i>The War of the
Worlds.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The term was
eventually put into circulation in the late 1920s by Hugo Gernsback (1894-67)
who had originally coined the word “scientifiction.” Gradually, Science fiction
replaced the term ‘scientific romance’, and science fiction is quite often
categorized as speculative fiction. A few important authors of science fiction
are Isaac Asimov, Arthur Clarke, Ray Bradbury, J. G. Ballard, and Doris
Lessing. George Orwell’s <i>Nineteen Eighty
Four</i>, Aldous Huxley’s <i>Brave NewWorld</i>,
Kurt Vonnegut’s <i>Cat’s Cradle</i> form a
few examples of science fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Detective
Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The commission and detection
of crime with the motives, actions, arraignment, judgement, and punishment of a
criminal is one of the great paradigms of narrative in detective fiction.The
investigator functions as the protagonist and studies such as Julian Symon’s<i>Bloody Murder</i> (1972) have dealt
elaborately on the nineteenth and early to mid-20<sup>th</sup> century
development of fictional detection. William Godwin’s <i>Caleb Wiliams</i>(1894),EugéneVidocq’s<i>Mémoires</i>, Charles Dickens’ <i>Bleak
House</i>(1853), Wilkie Collins’<i>The
Moonstone</i> (1868)and <i>The Woman in
White</i>(1859), Fyodor Dostoevsky’s <i>Crime
and Punishment</i>(1866) have been precursors of detective fiction. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is agreed that
detective fiction came of age in the creation of Sherlock Holmes’ <i>A Study in Scarlet</i> (1887). However, it
was with the writings of Dashiell Hammett, James M.Cain, Raymond Chandler that
detective fiction began to emerge as a genre in the nineteenth century.
Detective fiction has become one of the significant forms of prose in the U.K.
and the U.S ever since 1945. Among the modern authors who deserve mention are
Linda Barnes, Lawrence Block, Lilian Jackson Braun, Robert Campbell, Patricia
Cornwall, John Dunning, JamesEllroy. Manuel VäzquezMontalbán in Spain,
Maria-Antonia Oliver in Denmark, Peter Hөeg in South Africa, James McClure in
Australia, Umberto Eco and Leonardo Sciascia in Italy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gothic
Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Gothic Novel
is a type of prose fiction, propounded by Horace Walpole’s <i>The Castleof Otranto: A Gothic Story</i> (1764). The locale was often a
gloomy castle furnished with dungeons, subterranean passages, and sliding
panels; the typical story focused on the sufferings imposed on an innocent
heroine by a cruel and lustful villain, and made bountiful use of ghosts, mysterious
disappearances, and other sensational and supernatural occurrences (which in a
number of novels turned out to have natural explanations).The principal aim of
such novels was to evoke chilling terror by exploiting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">mystery and a variety of horrors.
Examples of Gothic novels are William Beckford's <i>Vathek</i>(1786)—the
setting of which is both medieval and Oriental and the subject both erotic and
sadistic—Ann Radcliffe's <i>The Mysteries ofUdolpho</i>(1794) and other highly
successful Gothic romances, and Matthew Gregory Lewis' <i>The Monk </i>(1796),
which exploited, with considerable literary skill, the shock-effects of a
narrative involving rape, incest, murder, and diabolism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples of
Gothic novels are William Beckford's <i>Vathek</i>(1786)—the setting of which
is both medieval and Oriental and the subject both erotic and sadistic—Ann
Radcliffe's <i>The Mysteries ofUdolpho</i>(1794) and other highly successful
Gothic romances, and Matthew Gregory Lewis' <i>The Monk </i>(1796), which
exploited, with considerable literary skill, the shock-effects of a narrative
involving rape, incest, murder, and diabolism. Jane Austen made good-humoured
fun of the more decorous instances of the Gothic vogue in <i>Northanger Abbey</i>(1817)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit 3: The Romantic Age<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> PROSE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CHARLES
LAMB (1775-1834)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LIFE.
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lamb
was born (1775) in the midst of London, and never felt at home anywhere else.
London is a world in itself, and of all its corners there were only three that
Lamb found comfortable. The first was the modest little home where he lived
with his gifted sister Mary, reading with her through the long evenings, or
tenderly caring for her during a period of insanity; the second was the
commercial house where he toiled as a clerk; the third was the busy street
which lay between home and work,-- a street forever ebbing and flowing with a
great tide of human life that affected Lamb profoundly, mysteriously, as
Wordsworth was affected by the hills or the sea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
boy's education began at Christ's Hospital, where he met Coleridge and entered
with him into a lifelong friendship. At fifteen he left school to help support
his family; and for the next thirty-three years he was a clerk, first in the
South Sea House, then in the East India Company. Rather late in life he began
to write, his prime object being to earn a little extra money, which he sadly
needed. Then the Company, influenced partly by his faithful service and partly
by his growing reputation, retired him on a pension. Most eagerly, like a boy
out of school, he welcomed his release, intending to do great things with his
pen; but curiously enough he wrote less, and less excellently, than before. His
decline began with his hour of liberty. For a time, in order that his invalid
sister might have quiet, he lived outside the city, at Islington and Enfield;
but he missed the work, the street, the crowd, and especially did he miss his
old habits. He had no feeling for nature, nor for any art except that which he
found in old books. "I hate the country," he wrote; and the cause of
his dislike was that, not knowing what to do with himself, he grew weary of a
day that was "all day long."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
earlier works of Lamb (some poems, a romance and a drama) are of little
interest except to critics. The first book that brought him any considerable
recognition was the "Tales from Shakespeare". This was a summary of
the stories used by Shakespeare in his plays, and was largely the work of Mary
Lamb, who had a talent for writing children's books. The charm of the
"Tales" lies in the fact that the Lambs were so familiar with old
literature that they reproduced the stories in a style which might have done
credit to a writer in the days of Elizabeth. The book is still widely read, and
is as good as any other if one wants that kind of book. But the chief thing in
"Macbeth" or "The Tempest" is the poetry, not the tale or
the plot; and even if one wants only the story, why not get it from Shakespeare
himself? Another and better book by Lamb of the same general kind is
"Specimens of English Dramatic Poets Contemporary with Shakespeare".
In this book he saves us a deal of unprofitable reading by gathering together
the best of the Elizabethan dramas, to which he adds some admirable notes of
criticism or interpretation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Here is a little book called
"Essays of Elia" which stands out from all other prose works of the
age. If we examine this book to discover the source of its charm, we find it
pervaded by a winsome "human" quality which makes us want to know the
man who wrote it. In this respect Charles Lamb differs from certain of his
contemporaries. Wordsworth was too solitary, Coleridge and De Quincey too
unbalanced, Shelley too visionary and Keats too aloof to awaken a feeling of
personal allegiance; but the essays of Lamb reveal two qualities which, like
fine gold, are current among readers of all ages. These are sympathy and humor.
By the one we enter understandingly into life, while the other keeps us from
taking life too tragically.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">William Hazlitt <br />
(1778-1830)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">William Hazlitt
was the son of a Unitarian minister. He went to Paris in his youth with the aim
of becoming a painter, but gradually convinced himself that he could not excel
in this art. He then turned to journalism and literature, and came into close
association with Wordsworth, Coleridge, Lamb, Hunt, and others of the Romantic
School.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He was,
however, of a sensitive and difficult temperament, and sooner or later
quarrelled with most of his friends. Though a worshiper of Napoleon, whose life
he wrote, he was a strong liberal in politics, and supposed himself persecuted for
his opinions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of all
Hazlitt's voluminous writings, those which retain most value to-day are his
literary criticisms and his essays on general topics. His clear and vivacious
style rose at times to a rare beauty; and when the temper of his work was not
marred by his touchiness and egotism he wrote with great charm and a delicate
fancy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The essay </span><a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/persons.htm"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Of Persons One Should Wish To Have
Seen</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> shows in a high degree the tact and grace of Hazlitt's best writing, and
his power of creating a distinctive atmosphere.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It would be
difficult to find a paper of this length which conveys so much of the special
quality of the literary circle which added so much to the glory of English
letters in the first quarter of the nineteenth century.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Works<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 30%px;">
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/superior.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Disadvantage</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Of
Intellectual Superiority<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/fight.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">The Fight</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/poet.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">My First</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Aquaintance
With Poets<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/goodntr.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Good Nature</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/ignrnc.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Ignorance</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Of The
Learned<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/juggler.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Indian Jugglers</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/journey.htm" title="On Going A Journey "><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">A Journey</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/chrctr.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Knowledge</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> of Character<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="http://www.civilisationis.com/smartboard/shop/hazlittw/persons.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Persons</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> One Would
Wish To Have Seen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">WILLIAM
WORDSWORTH (1770-1850)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">POETRY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There is but one way to know Wordsworth,
and that way leads to his nature poems. Though he lived in a revolutionary age,
his life was singularly uneventful. His letters are terribly prosaic; and his
"Excursion", in which he attempted an autobiography, has so many dull
lines that few have patience to read it. Though he asserted, finely, that there
is but one great society on earth, "the noble living and the noble
dead," he held no communion with the great minds of the past or of the
present. He lived in his own solitary world, and his only real companion was
nature. To know nature at first hand, and to reflect human thought or feeling in
nature's pure presence,--this was his chief object. His field, therefore, is a
small one, but in that field he is the greatest master that England has thus
far produced.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LIFE.
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wordsworth
is as inseparably connected with the English Lake District as Burns with the
Lowlands or Scott with the Border. A large part of the formative period of his
life was spent out of doors amid beautiful scenery, where he felt the abounding
life of nature streaming upon him in the sunshine, or booming in his ears with
the steady roar of the March winds. He felt also a living presence that met him
in the loneliest wood, or spoke to him in the flowers, or preceded him over the
wind-swept hills. He was one of those favored mortals who are surest of the
Unseen. From school he would hurry away to his skating or bird-nesting or
aimless roaming, and every new day afield was to him "One of those
heavenly days that cannot die."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">WORDSWORTH
AND THE REVOLUTION. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From the Lake Region he went to
Cambridge, but found little in college life to attract or hold him. Then,
stirred by the promise of the Revolution, he went to France, where his help was
eagerly sought by rival parties; for in that day every traveler from America or
England, whether an astute Jefferson or a lamblike Wordsworth, was supposed to
be, by virtue of his country, a master politician Wordsworth threw himself
rather blindly into the Revolution, joined the Girondists (the ruling faction
in 1792) and might have gone to the guillotine with the leaders of that party
had not his friends brought him home by the simple expedient of cutting off his
supply of money. Thus ended ingloriously the only adventure that ever quickened
his placid life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For
a time Wordsworth mourned over the failure of his plans, but his grief turned
to bitterness when the Revolution passed over into the Reign of Terror and
ended in the despotism of Napoleon. His country was now at war with France, and
he followed his country, giving mild support to Burke and the Tory party. After
a few uncertain years, during which he debated his calling in life, he resolved
on two things: to be a poet, and to bring back to English poetry the romantic
spirit and the naturalness of expression which had been displaced by the formal
elegance of the age of Pope and Johnson.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 33.75pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For
that resolution we are indebted partly to Coleridge, who had been attracted by
some of Wordsworth's early poems, and who encouraged him to write more. From
the association of these two men came the famous "Lyrical Ballads"
(1798), a book which marks the beginning of a new era in English poetry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
Wordsworth's sister Dorothy we are even more indebted. It was she who soothed
Wordsworth's disappointment, reminded him of the world of nature in which alone
he was at home, and quietly showed him where his power lay.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PERSONAL
TRAITS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The latter half of Wordsworth's life was passed in
the Lake Region, at Grasmere and Rydal Mount for the most part, the continuity
being broken by walking trips in Britain or on the Continent. A very quiet,
uneventful life it was, but it revealed two qualities which are of interest to
Wordsworth's readers. The first was his devotion to his art; the second was his
granite steadfastness. His work was at first neglected, while the poems of
Scott, Byron and Tennyson in succession attained immense popularity. The
critics were nearly all against him; misunderstanding his best work and
ridiculing the rest. The ground of their opposition was, that his theory of the
utmost simplicity in poetry was wrong; their ridicule was made easier by the
fact that Wordsworth produced as much bad work as good. Moreover, he took
himself very seriously, had no humor, and, as visitors like Emerson found to
their disappointment, was interested chiefly in himself and his own work. For
was he not engaged in the greatest of all projects, an immense poem ("The
Recluse") which should reflect the universe in the life of one man, and
that man William Wordsworth? Such self-satisfaction invited attack; even Lamb,
the gentlest of critics, could hardly refrain from poking fun at it:
"Wordsworth, the great poet, is coming to town; he is to have apartments
in the Mansion House. He says he does not see much difficulty in writing like
Shakespeare, if he had a mind to try it. It is clear that nothing is wanting
but the mind." Slowly but surely Wordsworth won recognition, not simply in
being made Laureate, but in having his ideal of poetry vindicated. Poets in
England and America began to follow him; the critics were silenced, if not
convinced. While the popularity of Scott and Byron waned, the readers of
Wordsworth increased steadily, finding him a poet not of the hour but of all
time. "If a single man plant himself indomitably on his instincts, and
there abide," says Emerson, "the huge world will come around to him."
If the reading world has not yet come around to Wordsworth, that is perhaps not
the poet's fault.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">WORDSWORTH:
HIS THEME AND THEORY. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The theory which Wordsworth and
Coleridge formulated was simply this: that poetry is the spontaneous overflow
of powerful human feeling. Its only subjects are nature and human nature; its
only object is to reflect the emotions awakened by our contemplation of the
world or of humanity; its language must be as direct and simple as possible,
such language as rises unbidden to the lips whenever the heart is touched.
Though some of the world's best poets have taken a different view, Wordsworth
maintained steadily that poetry must deal with common subjects in the plainest
language; that it must not attempt to describe, in elegant phrases, what a poet
is supposed to feel about art or some other subject selected for its poetic
possibilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
POEMS OF WORDSWORTH. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As the reading of literature is the main
thing, the only word of criticism which remains is to direct the beginner; and
direction is especially necessary in dealing with Wordsworth, who wrote
voluminously, and who lacked both the critical judgment and the sense of humor
to tell him what parts of his work were inferior or ridiculous:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There's
something in a flying horse,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There's
something in a huge balloon! To be sure; springs in the one, gas in the other;
but if there were anything more poetic in horse or balloon, Wordsworth did not
discover it. There is something also in a cuckoo clock, or even in<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
household tub, one such as those<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which women use
to wash their clothes. Such banalities are to be found in the work of a poet
who could produce the exquisite sonnet "On Westminster Bridge," the
finely simple "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," the stirring "Ode
to Duty," the tenderly reflective "Tintern Abbey," and the
magnificent "Intimations of Immortality," which Emerson (who was not
a very safe judge) called "the high water mark of poetry in the nineteenth
century." These five poems may serve as the first measure of Wordsworth's
genius.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">POEMS
OF NATURE. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A few of Wordsworth's best nature poems
are: "Early Spring," "Three Years She Grew," "The
Fountain," "My Heart Leaps Up," "The Tables Turned,"
"To a Cuckoo," "To a Skylark" (the second poem, beginning,
"Ethereal minstrel") and "Yarrow Revisited." The spirit of
all his nature poems is reflected in "Tintern Abbey," which gives us
two complementary views of nature, corresponding to Wordsworth's earlier and
later experience. The first is that of the boy, roaming foot-loose over the
face of nature, finding, as Coleridge said, "Rhythm in all thought, and
joyance everywhere." The second is that of the man who returns to the
scenes of his boyhood, finds them as beautiful as ever, but pervaded now by a
spiritual quality,--"something which defies analysis, undefined and
ineffable, which must be felt and perceived by the soul."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
was this spiritual view of nature, as a reflection of the Divine, which
profoundly influenced Bryant, Emerson and other American writers. The essence
of Wordsworth's teaching, in his nature poems, appears in the last two lines of
his "Skylark," a bird that soars the more gladly to heaven because he
must soon return with joy to his own nest:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Type of the wise, who soar but never roam: True to
the kindred points of heaven and home.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">POEMS
OF HUMBLE LIFE. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of the poems more closely associated
with human life, a few the best are: "Michael," "The Highland
Reaper," "The Leech Gatherers," "Margaret" (in
"The Excursion"), "Brougham Castle," "The Happy
Warrior," "Peel Castle in a Storm," "Three Years She
Grew," "She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways" and "She was a
Phantom of Delight." In such poems we note two significant
characteristics: that Wordsworth does not seek extraordinary characters, but is
content to show the hidden beauty in the lives of plain men and women; and that
his heroes and heroines dwell, as he said, where "labor still preserves
his rosy face." They are natural men and women, and are therefore simple
and strong; the quiet light in their faces is reflected from the face of the
fields. In his emphasis on natural simplicity, virtue, beauty, Wordsworth has
again been, as he desired, a teacher of multitudes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
SONNETS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the number and fine quality of his sonnets
Wordsworth has no superior in English poetry. Simplicity, strength, deep thought,
fine feeling, careful workmanship,--these qualities are present in measure more
abundant than can be found elsewhere in the poet's work. A few sonnets which
can be heartily recommended are: "Westminster Bridge," "The
Seashore," "The World," "Venetian Republic," "To
Sleep," "Toussaint L'Ouverture," "Afterthoughts,"
"To Milton" (sometimes called "London, 1802") and the
farewell to Scott when he sailed in search of health, beginning, "A trouble
not of clouds or weeping rain."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Not
until one has learned to appreciate Wordsworth at his best will it be safe to
attempt "The Prelude, or the Growth of a Poet's Mind". Most people
grow weary of this poem, which is too long; but a few read it with pleasure for
its portrayal of Wordsworth's education at the hand of Nature, or for
occasional good lines which lure us on like miners in search of gold. "The
Prelude", though written at thirty-five, was not published till after
Wordsworth's death, and for this reason: he had planned an immense poem,
dealing with Nature, Man and Society, which he called "The Recluse",
and which he likened to a Gothic cathedral. His "Prelude" was the
"ante-chapel" of this work; his miscellaneous odes, sonnets and
narrative poems were to be as so many "cells and oratories"; other
parts of the structure were "The Home at Grasmere" and "The
Excursion", which he may have intended as transepts, or as chapels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This great work
was left unfinished, and one may say of it, as of Spenser's "Faery
Queen", that it is better so. Like other poets of venerable years
Wordsworth wrote many verses that were better left in the inkpot; and it is a
pity, in dealing with so beautiful and necessary a thing as poetry, that one
should ever reach the point of saying, sadly but truthfully, "Enough is
too much."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">TIT
BITS:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 'The Prelude' or 'The Growth of a Poet's
Mind' is an autobiographical poem in blank verse addressed to Coleridge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • 'Resolution
and Independence' (1807) is also known as 'The Leach Gatherer'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • 'Peter
Bell' (1819) is dedicated to Southey. The ludicrous nature of part of the poem
made it the subject of many parodies, including Shelley's 'Peter Bell The
Third'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • Became
poet laureate in 1843, succeeding Southey.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • Byron
and Shelley mocked Wordsworth as 'simple' and 'dull', Keats distrusted what he
called the 'egostical sublime', and Hazlitt and later Browning, deplored him as
'The Lost Leader' who had abandoned his early radical faith. While Arnold
praised his art as "The bare, sheer. penerating power " of
Wordsworth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">COLERIDGE
AND SOUTHEY. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The story of these two men is a
commentary on the uncertainties of literary fortune. Both won greater reward
and reputation than fell to the lot of Wordsworth; but while the fame of the
latter poet mounts steadily with the years, the former have become, as it were,
footnotes to the great contemporary with whom they were associated, under the
name of "Lake Poets," for half a glorious century.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE (1772-1834): </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
tragedy "Remorse", which Coleridge wrote, is as nothing compared with
the tragedy of his own life. He was a man of superb natural gifts, of vast
literary culture, to whose genius the writers of that age--Wordsworth, Hazlitt,
Lamb, De Quincey, Shelley, Landor, Southey--nearly all bear witness. He might
well have been a great poet, or critic, or philosopher, or teacher; but he
lacked the will power to direct his gifts to any definite end. His irresolution
became pitiful weakness when he began to indulge in the drug habit, which soon
made a slave of him. Thereafter he impressed all who met him with a sense of
loss and inexpressible sorrow.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LIFE.
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Coleridge
began to read at three years of age; at five he had gone through the Bible and
the Arabian Nights; at thirty he was perhaps the most widely read man of his
generation in the fields of literature and philosophy. He was a student in a
famous charity school in London when he met Charles Lamb, who records his
memories of the boy and the place in his charming essay of "Christ's
Hospital." At college he was one of a band of enthusiasts inspired by the
French Revolution, and with Southey he formed a plan to establish in America a
world-reforming Pantisocracy, or communistic settlement, where all should be
brothers and equals, and where a little manual work was to be tempered by much
play, poetry and culture. Europeans had queer ideas of America in those days.
This beautiful plan failed, because the reformers did not have money enough to
cross the ocean and stake out their Paradise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
next important association of Coleridge was with Wordsworth and his sister
Dorothy, in Somerset, where the three friends planned and published the
"Lyrical Ballads" of 1798. In this work Wordsworth attempted to
portray the charm of common things, and Coleridge to give reality to a world of
dreams and fantasies. Witness the two most original poems in the book,
"Tintern Abbey" and "The Ancient Mariner."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During
the latter part of his life Coleridge won fame by his lectures on English
poetry and German philosophy, and still greater fame by his conversations,--brilliant,
heaven-scaling monologues, which brought together a company of young
enthusiasts. And presently these disciples of Coleridge were spreading abroad a
new idealistic philosophy, which crossed the ocean, was welcomed by Emerson and
a host of young writers or reformers, and appeared in American literature as
Transcendentalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">STORIES
OF COLERIDGE. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Others who heard the conversations were
impressed in a somewhat different way. Keats met Coleridge on the road, one
day, and listened dumbfounded to an ecstatic discourse on poetry, nightingales,
the origin of sensation, dreams (four kinds), consciousness, creeds, ghost
stories,--"he broached a thousand matters" while the poets were
walking a space of two miles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Walter
Scott, meeting Coleridge at a dinner, listened with his head in a whirl to a
monologue on fairies, the classics, ancient mysteries, visions, ecstasies, the
psychology of poetry, the poetry of metaphysics. "Zounds!" says
Scott, "I was never so bethumped with words."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Charles
Lamb, hurrying to his work, encountered Coleridge and was drawn aside to a
quiet garden. There the poet took Lamb by a button of his coat, closed his
eyes, and began to discourse, his right hand waving to the rhythm of the
flowing words. No sooner was Coleridge well started than Lamb slyly took out
his penknife, cut off the button, and escaped unobserved. Some hours later, as
he passed the garden on his return, Lamb heard a voice speaking most musically;
he turned aside in wonder, and there stood Coleridge, his eyes closed, his left
hand holding the button, his right hand waving, "still talking like an
angel."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Such are the stories,
true or apocryphal, of Coleridge's conversations. Their bewildering quality
appears, somewhat dimmed, in his prose works, which have been finely compared
with the flight of an eagle on set wings,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">sweeping in wide
circles, balancing, soaring, mounting on the winds. But we must note this
difference: that the eagle keeps his keen eye on the distant earth, and always
knows just where he is; while Coleridge sees only the wonders of Cloudland, and
appears to be hopelessly lost.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">HIS
PROSE AND POETRY. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The chief prose works of Coleridge are
his "Biographia Literaria" (a brilliant patchwork of poetry and
metaphysics), "Aids to Reflection", "Letters and Table
Talk" (the most readable of his works), and "Lectures and Notes on
Shakespeare". These all contain fine gold, but the treasure is for those
doughty miners the critics rather than for readers who go to literature for
recreation. Among the best of his miscellaneous poems (and Coleridge at his
best has few superiors) are "Youth and Age," "Love Poems,"
"Hymn before Sunrise," "Ode to the Departing Year," and the
pathetic "Ode to Dejection," which is a reflection of the poet's
saddened but ever hopeful<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two
other poems, highly recommended by most critics, are the fragments "Kubla
Khan" and "Christabel"; but in dealing with these the reader may
do well to form his own judgment. Both fragments contain beautiful lines, but
as a whole they are wandering, disjointed, inconsequent, mere sketches, they
seem, of some weird dream of mystery or terror which Coleridge is trying in
vain to remember.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
ANCIENT MARINER. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The most popular of Coleridge's works is
his imperishable "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," a wildly improbable
poem of icebound or tropic seas, of thirst-killed sailors, of a phantom ship
sailed by a crew of ghosts,--all portrayed in the vivid, picturesque style of
the old ballad. When the "Mariner" first appeared it was dismissed as
a cock-and-bull story; yet somehow readers went back to it, again and again, as
if fascinated. It was passed on to the next generation; and still we read it,
and pass it on. For this grotesque tale differs from all others of its kind in
that its lines have been quoted for over a hundred years as a reflection of
some profound human experience. That is the genius of the work: it takes the
most fantastic illusions and makes them appear as real as any sober journey
recorded in a sailor's log book.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At
the present time our enjoyment of the "Mariner" is somewhat hampered
by the critical commentaries which have fastened upon the poem, like barnacles
on an old ship. It has been studied as a type of the romantic ballad, as a
moral lesson, as a tract against cruelty to animals, as a model of college
English. But that is no way to abuse a poet's fancy! To appreciate the
"Mariner" as the author intended, one should carry it off to the
hammock or orchard; there to have freedom of soul to enjoy a well-spun yarn, a
gorgeous flight of imagination, a poem which illustrates Coleridge's definition
of poetry as "the bloom and the fragrance of all human knowledge,
thoughts, emotions, language." It broadens one's sympathy, as well as
one's horizon, to accompany this ancient sailor through scenes of terror and
desolation:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O Wedding-Guest! this soul hath been<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alone
on a wide, wide sea:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So lonely 't was, that God himself<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scarce seemed there to be.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the midst of
such scenes come blessed memories of a real world, of the beauty of
unappreciated things, such as the "sweet jargoning" of birds:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
now 'twas like all instruments,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Now like a lonely flute;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And
now it is an angel's song,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
makes the heavens be mute.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It ceased; yet still the sails made on<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
pleasant noise till noon,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
noise like of a hidden brook<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the leafy month of June,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
to the sleeping woods all night<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Singeth a quiet tune.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whoever is not
satisfied with that for its own sake, without moral or analysis, has missed the
chief interest of all good poetry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">TIT
BITS:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His contribution to
"Lyrical Ballads" the following poems - 'The Ancient Mariner', 'The
Foster-Mother's Tale', 'The Nightingale' and 'The Dungeon'<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • "Biographia
Literaria" is a combination of biography, aesthetics and philosophy. Part
I is broadly autobiographical describing Coleridge's friendship with Southey
and Wordsworth. Chapter XIII contains his famous distinction between Fancy and
Imagination. Part II is almost entirely crucial, attacking Wordsworth's preface
to the "Lyrical<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ballads".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • J. L.
Lowes, in 'The Road to Xanadu' (1927), traces the sources and imagery of 'The
Ancient Mariner'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • 'Remorse'
is a tragedy written in 1797 as 'Osorio'. The story is set in Granada at the
time of the Spanish Inquisition, tells of the slow corruption of the character
of Osorio, a man who is gradually led by temptations and events into guilt and
evil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • 'Frost
at Midnight' (1798) is a blank verse poem addressed to his sleeping child
Hartley.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">P. B. SHELLEY (1792-1822)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The career of
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) is, in comparison with that of Byron, as a
will-o'-the-wisp to a meteor. Byron was of the earth earthy; he fed upon coarse
food, shady adventures, scandal, the limelight; but Shelley Seemed nourished
upon starbeams, and the stuff of rainbows and the tempest and the foam. He was
a delicate child, shy, sensitive, elflike, who wandered through the woods near
his home, in Sussex, on the lookout for sprites and hobgoblins. His reading was
of the wildest kind; and when he began the study of chemistry he was forever
putting together things that made horrible smells or explosions, in expectation
that the genii of the "Arabian Nights" would rise from the smoke of
his test tube.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
YOUNG REBEL. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At Eton the boy promptly rebelled
against the brutal fagging system, then tolerated in all English schools. He
was presently in hot water, and the name "Mad Shelley," which the
boys gave him, followed him through life. He had been in the university
(Oxford) hardly two years when his head was turned by some book of shallow
philosophy, and he printed a rattle-brained tract called "The Necessity of
Atheism." This got him into such trouble with the Dons that he was
expelled for insubordination.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
WIND AND THE WHIRLWIND. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forthwith Shelley published more
tracts of a more rebellious kind. His sister Helen put them into the hands of
her girl friend, Harriet Westbrook, who showed her belief in revolutionary
theories by running away from school and parental discipline and coming to
Shelley for "protection." These two social rebels, both in the
green-apple stage (their combined age was thirty-five), were presently married;
not that either of them believed in marriage, but because they were compelled
by "Anarch Custom."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After
some two years of a wandering, will-o'-the-wisp life, Shelley and his wife were
estranged and separated. The young poet then met a certain William Godwin,
known at that time as a novelist and evolutionary philosopher, and showed his
appreciation of Godwin's radical teaching by running away with his daughter Mary,
aged seventeen. The first wife, tired of liberalism, drowned herself, and
Shelley was plunged into remorse at the tragedy. The right to care for his
children was denied him, as an improper person, and he was practically driven
out of England by force of that public opinion which he had so frequently
outraged or defied.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Life
is a good teacher, though stern in its reckoning, and in Italy life taught
Shelley that the rights and beliefs of other men were no less sacred than his
own. He was a strange combination of hot head and kind heart, the one filled
with wild social theories, the other with compassion for humanity. He was
immensely generous with his friends, and tender to the point of tears at the
thought of suffering men,--not real men, such as he met in the streets (even
the beggars in Italy are cheerful), but idealized men, with mysterious sorrows,
whom he met in the clouds. While in England his weak head had its foolish way,
and his early poems, such as "Queen Mab", are violent declamations.
In Italy his heart had its day, and his later poems, such as
"Adonais" and "Prometheus Unbound", are rhapsodies ennobled
by Shelley's love of beauty and by his unquenchable hope that a bright day of
justice must soon dawn upon the world. He was drowned (1822) while sailing his
boat off the Italian coast, before he had reached the age of thirty years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
POETRY OF SHELLEY. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the longer poems of Shelley there are
two prominent elements, and two others less conspicuous but more important. The
first element is revolt. The poet was violently opposed to the existing order
of society, and lost no opportunity to express his hatred of Tyranny, which was
Shelley's name for what sober men called law and order. Feeding his spirit of
revolution were numerous anarchistic theories, called the new philosophy, which
had this curious quality: that they hotly denied the old faith, law, morality,
as other men formulated such matters, and fervently believed any quack who
appeared with a new nostrum warranted to cure all social disorders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
second obvious element in Shelley's poetry is his love of beauty, not the
common beauty of nature or humanity which Wordsworth celebrated, but a strange
"supernal" beauty with no "earthly" quality or reality. His
best lines leave a vague impression of something beautiful and lovely, but we
know not what it is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Less
conspicuous in Shelley's poems are the sense of personal loss or grief which
pervades them, and the exquisite melody of certain words which he used for
their emotional effect rather than to convey any definite meaning. Like Byron
he sang chiefly of his own feelings, his rage or despair, his sorrow or
loneliness. He reflected his idea of the origin and motive of lyric poesy in
the lines:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Most wretched men<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Are
cradled into poetry by wrong;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They learn in
suffering what they teach in song,-- an idea which Poe adopted in its entirety,
and which Heine expressed in a sentimental lyric, telling how from his great
grief he made his little songs:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aus
meinen groszen Schmerzen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mach'
ich die kleinen Lieder.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hardly another
English poet uses words so musically as Shelley (witness "The Cloud"
and "The Skylark"), and here again his idea of verbal melody was
carried to an extreme by Poe, in whose poetry words are used not so much to
express ideas as to awaken vague emotions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ALASTOR.
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All
the above-named qualities appear in "Alastor" (the Spirit of
Solitude), which is less interesting as a poem than as a study of Shelley. In
this poem we may skip the revolt, which is of no consequence, and follow the
poet in his search for a supernally lovely maiden who shall satisfy his love
for ideal beauty. To find her he goes, not among human habitations, but to
gloomy forests, dizzy cliffs, raging torrents, tempest-blown seashore,--to
every place where a maiden in her senses would not be. Such places, terrible or
picturesque, are but symbols of the poet's soul in its suffering and
loneliness. He does not find his maiden (and herein we read the poet's first
confession that he has failed in life, that the world is too strong for him);
but he sees the setting moon, and somehow that pale comforter brings him peace
with death.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PROMETHEUS.
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
"Prometheus Unbound" Shelley uses the old myth of the Titan who
rebelled against the tyranny of the gods, and who was punished by being chained
to a rock. [The original tragedy of "Prometheus Bound" was written by
Aeschylus, a famous old Greek dramatist. The same poet wrote also
"Prometheus Unbound", but the latter drama has been lost. Shelley
borrowed the idea of his poem from this lost drama.] In this poem Prometheus
(man) is represented as being tortured by Jove (law or custom) until he is
released by Demogorgon (progress or necessity); whereupon he marries Asia (love
or goodness), and stars and moon break out into a happy song of redemption.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Obviously
there is no reality or human interest in such a fantasy. The only pleasurable
parts of the poem are its detached passages of great melody or beauty; and the
chief value of the work is as a modern example of Titan literature. Many poets
have at various times represented mankind in the person of a Titan, that is, a
man written large, colossal in his courage or power or suffering: Aschylus in
"Prometheus", Marlowe in "Tamburlaine", Milton in Lucifer,
of "Paradise Lost", Goethe in "Faust", Byron in
"Manfred", Shelley in "Prometheus Unbound". The Greek Titan
is resigned, uncomplaining, knowing himself to be a victim of Fate, which may
not be opposed; Marlowe's Titan is bombastic and violent; Milton's is
ambitious, proud, revengeful; Goethe's is cultured and philosophical; Byron's
is gloomy, rebellious, theatrical. So all these poets portray each his own bent
of mind, and something also of the temper of the age, in the character of his
Titan. The significance of Shelley's poem is in this: that his Titan is patient
and hopeful, trusting in the spirit of Love to redeem mankind from all evil.
Herein Shelley is far removed from the caviling temper of his fellow rebel
Byron. He celebrates a golden age not of the past but of the future, when the
dream of justice inspired by the French Revolution shall have become a glorious
reality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">HIS
BEST POEMS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These longer poems of Shelley are read
by the few; they are too vague, with too little meaning or message, for
ordinary readers who like to understand as well as to enjoy poetry. To such
readers the only interesting works of Shelley are a few shorter poems:
"The Cloud," "To a Skylark," "Ode to the West
Wind," "Indian Serenade," "A Lament," "When the
Lamp is Lighted" and some parts of "Adonais" (a beautiful elegy
in memory of Keats), such as the passage beginning, "Go thou to
Rome." For splendor of imagination and for melody of expression these
poems have few peers and no superiors in English literature. To read them is to
discover that Shelley was at times so sensitive, so responsive to every harmony
of nature, that he seemed like the poet of Alastor. When Shelley's lute was
tuned to nature it brought forth aerial melody; when he strained its strings to
voice some social rebellion or anarchistic theory it produced wild discord.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">TIT BITS:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'Queen Mab' (1813) is
a visionary and ideological poem in nine cantos. The work shows
Shelley as the direct heir to the French and British revolutionary
intellectuals of the 1790s.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•Peacock drew a portrait of Shelley as
Scythrop Glowry in 'Nightmare Abbey'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'The Revolt of Islam' (1818) is an epic
political poem in 12 cantos of Spenserian stanzas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'The Mask of Anarchy' (1832) is a poem
of protest written in response to the 'Peterloo Massacre'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'The Cenci' (1819) is a verse tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'A
Philosophical View of Reform' (1820) is a political essay by Shelley confirming
his position as a
Radical, but not a revolutionary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'Defence of
Poetry' (1840) is a reply to Peacock's 'The Four Ages of Poetry'. Here Shelley
associates poetry with social freedom and love. He argues that the 'poetry of
life' provides the one sure response to the destructive 'accumulating and
calculating processes' of modern civilization. It contains the famous
peroration, ending 'Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">•'Adonais' (1821) is an elegy written on
the death of Keats.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">JOHN
KEATS (1795-1821)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A thing of beauty is a joy forever: Its
loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness, but still will keep
A bower quiet for us, and a sleep Full of sweet dreams and health and quiet
breathing. he above lines, from "Endymion", reflect the ideal of the
young singer whom we rank with the best poets of the nineteenth century. Unlike
other romanticists of that day, he seems to have lived for poetry alone and to
have loved it for its own sake, as we love the first spring flowers. His work
was shamefully treated by reviewers; it was neglected by the public; but still
he wrote, trying to make each line perfect, in the spirit of those medieval
workmen who put their hearts into a carving that would rest on some lofty spire
far above the eyes of men. To reverence beauty wherever he found it, and then
in gratitude to produce a new work of beauty which should live forever,--that
was Keats's only aim. It is the more wonderful in view of his humble origin,
his painful experience, his tragic end.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LIFE.
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Only
twenty-five years of life, which included seven years of uncongenial tasks, and
three of writing, and three of wandering in search of health,--that sums up the
story of Keats. He was born in London; the son of a hostler; his home was over
the stable; his playground the dirty street. The family prospered, moved to a
better locality, and the children were sent to a good school. Then the parents
died, and at fifteen Keats was bound out to a surgeon and apothecary. For four
years he worked as an apprentice, and for three years in a hospital; then, for
his heart was never in the work, he laid aside his surgeon's kit, resolving
never to touch it again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">TWO
POETIC IDEALS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Since childhood he had been a reader, a
dreamer, but not till a volume of Spenser's "Faery Queen" was put
into his hands did he turn with intense eagerness to poetry. The influence of
that volume is seen in the somewhat monotonous sweetness of his early work.
Next he explored the classics (he had read Virgil in the original, but he knew
no Greek), and the joy he found in Chapman's translation of Homer is reflected
in a noble sonnet. From that time on he was influenced by two ideals which he
found in Greek and medieval literature, the one with its emphasis on form, the
other with its rich and varied coloring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During
the next three years Keats published three small volumes, his entire life's
work. These were brutally criticized by literary magazines; they met with
ridicule at the hands of Byron, with indifference on the part of Scott and
Wordsworth. The pathetic legend that the poet's life was shortened by this
abuse is still repeated, but there is little truth in it. Keats held manfully
to his course, having more weighty things than criticism to think about. He was
conscious that his time was short; he was in love with his Fannie Brawne, but
separated from her by illness and poverty; and, like the American poet Lanier,
he faced death across the table as he wrote. To throw off the consumption which
had fastened upon him he tried to live in the open, making walking trips in the
Lake Region; but he met with rough fare and returned from each trip weaker than
before. He turned at last to Italy, dreading the voyage and what lay beyond.
Night fell as the ship put to sea; the evening star shone clear through the
storm clouds, and Keats sent his farewell to life and love and poetry in the
sonnet beginning:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bright star,
would I were steadfast as thou art. He died soon after his arrival in Rome, in
1821. Shelley, who had hailed Keats as a genius, and who had sent a generous
invitation to come and share his home, commemorated the poet's death and the
world's loss in "Adonais", which ranks with Milton's
"Lycidas", Tennyson's "In Memoriam" and Emerson's
"Threnody" among the great elegiac poems of our literature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
WORK OF KEATS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The first small volume of Keats
("Poems", 1817) seems now like an experiment. The part of that
experiment which we cherish above all others is the sonnet "On Chapman's
Homer," which should be read entire for its note of joy and for its fine
expression of the influence of classic poetry. The second volume,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"Endymion",
may be regarded as a promise. There is little reality in the rambling poem
which gives title to the volume (the story of a shepherd beloved of a
moon-goddess), but the bold imagery of the work, its Spenserian melody, its
passages of rare beauty,--all these speak of a true poet who has not yet quite
found himself or his subject. A third volume, "Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of
St. Agnes and Other Poems" (1820), is in every sense a fulfillment, for it
contains a large proportion of excellent poetry, fresh, vital, melodious, which
improves with years, and which carries on its face the stamp of permanency.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">HIS
BEST POEMS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The contents of this little volume may
be arranged, not very accurately, in three classes, In the first are certain
poems that by their perfection of form show the Greek or classic spirit. Best
known of these poems are the fragment "Hyperion," with its
Milton-like nobility of style, and "Lamia," which is the story of an
enchantress whom love transforms into a beautiful woman, but who quickly
vanishes because of her lover's too great curiosity,--a parable, perhaps, of
the futility of science and philosophy, as Keats regarded them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of
the poems of the second class, which reflect old medieval legends, "The
Pot of Basil," "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "La Belle Dame
sans Merci" are praised by poets and critics alike. "St. Agnes,"
which reflects a vague longing rather than a story, is the best known; but
"La Belle Dame" may appeal to some readers as the most moving of
Keats's poems. The essence of all old metrical romances is preserved in a few
lines, which have an added personal interest from the fact that they may reveal
something of the poet's sad love story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
the third class are a few sonnets and miscellaneous poems, all permeated by the
sense of beauty, showing in every line the genius of Keats and his exquisite
workmanship. The sonnets "On the Sea," "When I have Fears,"
"On the Grasshopper and Cricket" and "To Sleep"; the
fragment beginning "In a drear-nighted December"; the marvelous odes
"On a Grecian Urn," "To a Nightingale" and "To
Autumn," in which he combines the simplicity of the old classics with the
romance and magic of medieval writers,--there are no works in English of a
similar kind that make stronger appeal to our ideal of poetry and of verbal
melody. Into the three stanzas of "Autumn," for example, Keats has
compressed the vague feelings of beauty, of melancholy, of immortal aspiration,
which come to sensitive souls in the "season of mists and mellow
fruitfulness."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">KEATS:
AN ESSAY OF CRITICISM. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beyond recommending a few of his
poems for their beauty, there is really so little to be said of Keats that
critics are at their wit's end to express their appreciation. So we read of
Keats's "pure aestheticism," his "copious perfection," his
"idyllic visualization," his "haunting poignancy of
feeling," his "subtle felicities of diction," his "tone
color," and more to the same effect. Such criticisms are doubtless well
meant, but they are harder to follow than Keats's "Endymion"; and
that is no short or easy road of poesy. Perhaps by trying more familiar ways we
may better understand Keats, why he appeals so strongly to poets, and why he is
so seldom read by other people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
SENSE OF BEAUTY. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The first characteristic of the man was
his love for every beautiful thing he saw or heard. Sometimes the object which
fascinated him was the widespread sea or a solitary star; sometimes it was the
work of man, the product of his heart and brain attuned, such as a passage from
Homer, a legend of the Middle Ages, a vase of pure lines amid the rubbish of a
museum, like a bird call or the scent of violets in a city street. Whatever the
object that aroused his sense of beauty, he turned aside to stay with it a
while, as on the byways of Europe you will sometimes see a man lay down his
burden and bare his head before a shrine that beckons him to pray. With this reverence
for beauty Keats had other and rarer qualities: the power to express what he
felt, the imagination which gave him beautiful figures, and the taste which
enabled him to choose the finest words, the most melodious phrases, wherewith
to reflect his thought or mood or emotion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Such
was the power of Keats, to be simple and reverent in the presence of beauty,
and to give his feeling poetic or imaginative expression. In respect of such
power he probably had no peer in English literature. His limitations were
twofold: he looked too exclusively on the physical side of beauty, and he lived
too far removed from the common, wholesome life of men.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SENSE
AND SOUL. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The poetry of Keats deals largely with outward
matters, with form, color, melody, odors, with what is called
"sensuous" beauty because it delights our human senses. Such beauty
is good, but it is not supreme. Moreover, the artist who would appeal widely to
men must by sympathy understand their whole life, their mirth as well as their
sorrow, their days of labor, their hours of play, their moments of worship. But
Keats, living apart with his ideal of beauty, like a hermit in his cell, was
able to understand and to voice only one of the profound interests of humanity.
For this reason, and because of the deep note of sadness which sounds through
all his work like the monotone of the sea, his exquisite poems have never had
any general appreciation. Like Spenser, who was his first master, he is a
poet's poet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">TIT
BITS:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> •'Endymion' is dedicated to Chatterton.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> •'Isabella' or 'The Pot of Basil' (1820) is
anarrative poem based on a story in Boccaccio's 'Decameron'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> • Keats has always been regarded as one of the
principal figures in the Romantic Movement. Tennyson considered him as the
greatest poet of the 19<span style="mso-text-raise: 2.5pt; position: relative; top: -2.5pt;">th</span> century, and Arnold
commended his 'intellectual and spiritual passion' for beauty. His 'Ode on a
Grecian Urn' is regarded as<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> his most mature work, almost final word on the
vision of Hellas which he first discovered<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> through Lempriere's 'Dictionary', Chapman's
'Homer' and Elgins 'Marbles'.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 182.25pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">JANE AUSTEN (1775-1817)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NOVEL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The rare genius
of Miss Austen (1775-1817) was as a forest flower during her lifetime. While
Fanny Burney, Jane Porter and Maria Edgeworth were widely acclaimed, this
little woman remained almost unknown, following no<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">school
of fiction, writing for her own pleasure, and destroying whatever did not
satisfy her own sense of fitness. If she had any theory of fiction, it was
simply this: to use no incident but such as had occurred before her eyes, to
describe no scene that was not familiar, and to portray only such characters as
she knew intimately, their speech, dress, manner, and the motives that governed
their action. If unconsciously she followed any rule of expression, it was that
of Cowper, who said that to touch and retouch is the secret of almost all good
writing. To her theory and rule she added personal charm, intelligence, wit,
genius of a high order. Neglected by her own generation, she has now an
ever-widening circle of readers, and is ranked by critics among the five or six
greatest writers of English fiction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">HER
LIFE. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jane Austen's life was short and extremely placid.
She was born (1775) in a little Hampshire village; she spent her entire life in
one country parish or another, varying the scene by an occasional summer at the
watering<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">place of Bath,
which was not very exciting. Her father was an easy-going clergyman who read
Pope, avoided politics, and left preaching to his curate. She was one of a
large family of children, who were brought up to regard elegance of manner as a
cardinal virtue, and vulgarity of any kind as the epitome of the seven deadly
sins. Her two brothers entered the navy; hence the flutter in her books
whenever a naval officer comes on a furlough to his native village. She spent
her life in homely, pleasant duties, and did her writing while the chatter of
family life went on around her. Her only characters were visitors who came to
the rectory, or who gathered around the tea-table in a neighbor's house. They
were absolutely unconscious of the keen scrutiny to which they were subjected;
no one whispered to them, "A chiel's amang ye, takin' notes"; and so
they had no suspicion that they were being transferred into books.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The first three of Miss Austen's novels were
written at Steventon, among her innocent subjects, but her precious manuscripts
went begging in vain for a publisher. The last three, reflecting as in a glass
the manners of another parish, were written at Chawton, near Winchester. Then
the good work suddenly began to flag. The same disease that, a little later,
was to call halt to Keats's poetry of beauty now made an end of Miss Austen's
portrayal of everyday life. When she died (1817) she was only forty-two years
old, and her heart was still that of a young girl. A stained-glass window in
beautiful old Winchester Cathedral speaks eloquently of her life and work.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NOVELS
AND CHARACTERS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If we must recommend one of Miss
Austen's novels, perhaps "Pride and Prejudice" is the most typical;
but there is very little to justify this choice when the alternative is
"Northanger Abbey", or "Emma", or "Sense and
Sensibility", or "Persuasion", or "Mansfield Park".
All are good; the most definite stricture that one can safely make is that
"Mansfield Park" is not so good as the others. Four of the novels are
confined to country parishes; but in "Northanger Abbey" and
"Persuasion" the horizon is broadened to include a watering place,
whither genteel folk went "to take the air."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
characters of all these novels are: first, the members of five or six families,
with their relatives, who try to escape individual boredom by gregariousness;
and second, more of the same kind assembled at a local fair or sociable. Here
you meet a dull country squire or two, a feeble-minded baronet, a curate
laboriously upholding the burden of his dignity, a doctor trying to hide his
emptiness of mind by looking occupied, an uncomfortable male person in tow of
his wife, maiden aunts, fond mammas with their awkward daughters, chatterboxes,
poor relations, spoiled children,--a characteristic gathering. All these,
except the spoiled children, talk with perfect propriety about the weather. If
in the course of a long day anything witty is said, it is an accident, a
phenomenon; conversation halts, and everybody looks at the speaker as if he
must have had "a rush of brains to the head."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">HER
SMALL FIELD. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Such is Jane Austen's little field, an
eddy of life revolving endlessly around small parish interests. Her subjects
are not even the whole parish, but only "the quality," whom the
favored ones may meet at Mrs. B's afternoon at home. They read proper novels,
knit wristlets, discuss fevers and their remedies, raise their eyebrows at
gossip, connive at matrimony, and take tea. The workers of the world enter not
here; neither do men of ideas, nor social rebels, nor the wicked, nor the
happily unworthy poor; and the parish is blessed in having no reformers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
this barren field, hopeless to romancers like Scott, there never was such
another explorer as Jane Austen. Her demure observation is marvelously keen;
sometimes it is mischievous, or even a bit malicious, but always sparkling with
wit or running over with good humor. Almost alone in that romantic age she had
no story to tell, and needed none. She had never met any heroes or heroines.
Plots, adventures, villains, persecuted innocence, skeletons in closets, all
the ordinary machinery of fiction seemed to her absurd and unnecessary. She was
content to portray the life that she knew best, and found it so interesting
that, a century later, we share her enthusiasm. And that is the genius of Miss
Austen, to interest us not by a romantic story but by the truth of her
observation and by the fidelity of her portrayal of human nature, especially of
feminine nature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">INFLUENCE
ON ENGLISH FICTION. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There is one more thing to note in
connection with Miss Austen's work; namely, her wholesome influence on the
English novel. In "Northanger Abbey" and in "Sense and
Sensibility" she satirizes the popular romances of the period, with their
Byronic heroes, melodramatic horrors and perpetual harping on some pale
heroine's sensibilities. Her satire is perhaps the best that has been written
on the subject, so delicate, so flashing, so keen, that a critic compares it to
the exploit of Saladin (in "The Talisman") who could not with his
sword hack through an iron mace, as Richard did, but who accomplished the more
difficult feat of slicing a gossamer veil as it floated in the air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Such
satire was not lost; yet it was Miss Austen's example rather than her precept
which put to shame the sentimental romances of her day, and which influenced
subsequent English fiction in the direction of truth and naturalness. Young
people still prefer romance and adventure as portrayed by Scott and his
followers, and that is as it should be; but an increasingly large number of
mature readers (especially those who are interested in human nature) find a
greater charm in the novel of characters and manners, as exemplified by Jane
Austen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
CRITICS AND ESSAYISTS. </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From the seventeenth to the
nineteenth century (or from Shakespeare to Wordsworth) England was preparing a
great literature; and then appeared writers whose business or pleasure it was
to appreciate that literature, to point out its virtues or its defects, to
explain by what principle this or that work was permanent, and to share their
enjoyment of good prose and poetry with others,--in a word, the critics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
the list of such writers, who give us literature at second hand, the names of
Leigh Hunt, William Hazlitt, Walter Savage Landor, Charles Lamb and Thomas De
Quincey are written large. The two last-named are selected for special study,
not because of their superior critical ability (for Hazlitt was probably a
better critic than either), but because of a few essays in which these men left
us an appreciation of life, as they saw it for themselves at first hand. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Themes:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Surface
of the novel and the surface of her life - do not have anything striking,
uneventful. Works move around Middle Class, Disappointment in Love, and the
threat of seduction; in short the constant routine of middle class life.
Therefore it's said that "She works on two or three inches of ivory".
Deals with a quite mode of life. She explores human experience to the all
thoroughness possible with an element of comic mode. Though contemporary of
high Romantic writers, she was not interested in Romanticism. Unlike the
Romantics, she rejected the cult of personality, because she derived her inspiration
from the Neo- Classical writers. Walter Scott praised her works saying 'that
exquisite touch which renders ordinary commonplace things and characters
interesting', while Charlotte Bronte and Elizabeth Browning found her limited.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
4: The Victorian Age (1832 – 1901)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aestheticism</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
(also the Aesthetic Movement) is an intellectual and art movement supporting
the emphasis of aesthetic values more than social-political themes for
literature, fine art, music and other arts.[1][2] This meant that Art from this
particular movement focused more on being beautiful rather than having a deeper
meaning - 'Art for Art's sake'. It was particularly prominent in Europe during
the 19th century, supported by notable figures such as Oscar Wilde, but
contemporary critics are also associated with the movement, such as Harold
Bloom, who has recently argued against projecting social and political ideology
onto literary works, which he believes has been a growing problem in humanities
departments over the last century.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the 19th century, it was related to other
movements such as symbolism or decadence represented in France, or decadentismo
represented in Italy, and may be considered the British version of the same
style.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The British decadent writers were much influenced by
the Oxford professor Walter Pater and his essays published during 1867–68, in
which he stated that life had to be lived intensely, with an ideal of beauty.
His text Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873) was very well
regarded by art-oriented young men of the late 19th century. Writers of the
Decadent movement used the slogan "Art for Art's Sake" (L'art pour
l'art), the origin of which is debated. Some claim that it was invented by the
philosopher Victor Cousin, although Angela Leighton in the publication On Form:
Poetry, Aestheticism and the Legacy of a Word (2007) notes that the phrase was
used by Benjamin Constant as early as 1804.[3] It is generally accepted to have
been promoted by Théophile Gautier in France, who interpreted the phrase to
suggest that there was not any real association between art and morality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The artists and writers of Aesthetic style tended to
profess that the Arts should provide refined sensuous pleasure, rather than
convey moral or sentimental messages. As a consequence, they did not accept
John Ruskin, Matthew Arnold, and George MacDonald's conception of art as
something moral or useful, "Art for truth's sake".[4] Instead, they
believed that Art did not have any didactic purpose; it need only be beautiful.
The Aesthetes developed a cult of beauty, which they considered the basic
factor of art. Life should copy Art, they asserted. They considered nature as
crude and lacking in design when compared to art. The main characteristics of
the style were: suggestion rather than statement, sensuality, great use of
symbols, and synaesthetic/ Ideasthetic effects—that is, correspondence between
words, colours and music. Music was used to establish mood.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Walter
Horatio Pater</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (4 August 1839 – 30 July 1894) was an
English essayist, literary and art critic, and fiction writer, regarded as one
of the great stylists. His works on Renaissance subjects were popular but
controversial, reflecting his lost belief in Christianity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <i>The Renaissance<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Marius the Epicurean and Imaginary
Portraits<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Appreciations and Plato and
Platonism<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Greek Studies, Miscellaneous Studies
and other posthumous volumes<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PRE-RAPHAELITES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a
group of English painters, poets and critics, founded in1848 by John Everett
Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt. The group's intention
wasto reform art by rejecting what they considered to be the mechanistic
approach adopted by the Manneristartists who followed Raphael and Michelangelo.
They believed that the Classical poses and elegantcompositions of Raphael in
particular had been a corrupting influence on academic teaching of art.
Hencethe name "Pre-Raphaelite". In particular they objected to the
influence of Sir Joshua Reynolds, thefounder of the English Royal Academy of
Arts. They called him 'Sir Sloshua', believing that his sloppytechnique was a
formulaic and cliché form of academic Mannerism. In contrast they wanted to
return tothe abundant detail, intense colors, and complex compositions of
quattrocento Italian and Flemish art.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Pre-Raphaelites have been considered
the first avant-garde movement in art, though theyhave also been denied that status,
because they continued to accept both the concepts of history paintingand of
'mimesis', or imitation of nature, as central to the purpose of art. However,
the Pre-Raphaelitesundoubtedly defined themselves as a reform movement, created
a distinct name for their form of art, and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">published a periodical, <i>The Germ</i>,
to promote their ideas. Their debates were recorded in the "Pre-Raphaelite
Journal".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beginnings of the Brotherhood<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was
founded in John Millais' parents' house on Gower Street,London in 1848 At the
initial meeting John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William
HolmanHunt were present. Hunt and Millais were students at the Royal Academy of
Arts. They had previously metin another loose association, a sketching society
called the Cyclographic club. Rossetti was a pupil of FordMadox Brown. He had
met Hunt after seeing Hunt's painting <i>The Eve of St. Agnes</i>, based on
Keats's poem.As an aspiring poet Rossetti wished to develop the links between
Romantic poetry and art. By Autumn fourmore members had also joined to form a
seven-strong Brotherhood. These were William Michael Rossetti<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(Dante Gabriel Rossetti's brother),
Thomas Woolner, James Collinson and Frederic George Stephens. FordMadox Brown
was invited to join, but preferred to remain independent. He nevertheless
remained closeto the group. Some other young painters and sculptors were also
close associates, including Charles Alston<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Collins, Thomas Tupper and Alexander
Munro. They kept the existence of the Brotherhood secret frommembers of the
Royal Academy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Early Doctrines<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Brotherhood's early doctrines were
expressed in four declarations: 1. To have genuine ideasto express; 2. To study
Nature attentively, so as to know how to express them; 3. To sympathize withwhat
is direct and serious and heartfelt in previous art, to the exclusion of what
is conventional and self-parading<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">and learned by rote; 4. And most
indispensable of all, to produce thoroughly good pictures andstatues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These principles are deliberately
undogmatic, since the PRB wished to emphasise the personalresponsibility of
individual artists to determine their own ideas and method of depiction.
Influenced byRomanticism, they thought that freedom and responsibility were
inseparable. Nevertheless, they wereparticularly fascinated by Medieval
culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity lost in<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">later eras. This emphasis on Medieval
culture was to clash with the realism promoted by the stress onindependent
observation of nature. In its early stages the PRB believed that the two
interests wereconsistent with one another, but in later years the movement
divided in two directions. The realist sidewas led by Hunt and Millais, while
the medievalist side was led by Rossetti and his followers, Edward<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Burne-Jones and William Morris. This
split was never absolute, since both factions believed that art was essentially
spiritual in character, opposing their idealism to the materialist realism
associated withCourbet and Impressionism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In their attempts to revive the
brilliance of colour found in quattrocento art, Hunt and Millaisdeveloped a
technique of painting in thin glazes of pigment over a wet white ground. In
this way theyhoped that their colours would retain jewel-like transparency and clarity.
This emphasis of brilliance ofcolour was in reaction to the excessive use of
bitumen by earlier British artists such as Reynolds, David<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wilkie and Benjamin Robert Haydon.
Bitumen produces unstable areas of muddy darkness, an effect whichthe Pre-Raphaelites
despised.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Public Controversies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1850 the PRB became controversial
after the exhibition of Millais's painting "Christ in the Houseof His
Parents", considered to be blasphemous by many reviewers, notably Charles
Dickens. Theirmedievalism was attacked as backward-looking and their extreme
devotion to detail was condemned asugly and jarring to the eye. According to
Dickens, Millais made the Holy Family look like alcoholics andslum-dwellers,
adopting contorted and absurd 'medieval' poses. A rival group of older artists,
The Clique,also used their influence against the PRB. Their principles were
publicly attacked by the President of theAcademy, Sir Charles Lock
Eastlake.However, the Brotherhood found support from the critic John Ruskin,
who praised their devotionto nature and rejection of conventional methods of
composition. He continued to support their work bothfinancially and in his
writings.Following the controversy, Collinson left the Brotherhood. They met to
discuss whether he shouldbe replaced by Charles Alston Collins or Walter Howell
Deverell, but were unable to make a decision.From that point on the group
disbanded, though their influence continued to be felt. Artists who hadworked
in the style still followed these techniques (initially anyway) but they no
longer signed works"PRB".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Later Developments and Influence<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Artists who were influenced by the
Brotherhood include John Brett, Philip Calderon, ArthurHughes, Evelyn de Morgan
and Frederic Sandys. Ford Madox Brown, who was associated with them fromthe
beginning, is often seen as most closely adopting the Pre-Raphaelite
principles.After 1856 Rossetti, became an inspiration for the medievalising
strand of the movement. Hiswork influenced his friend William Morris, in whose
firm he became a partner and with whose wife he mayhave had an affair. Ford
Madox Brown and Edward Burne-Jones also became partners in the firm.
ThroughMorris's company the ideals of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood influenced
many interior designers andarchitects, arousing interest in medieval designs,
as well as other crafts. The led directly to the Arts and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Crafts movement headed by William
Morris. Holman Hunt was also involved with this movement to reformdesign
through the Della Robbia Pottery company.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After 1850, both Hunt and Millais moved
away from direct imitation of medieval art. Both stressedthe realist and
scientific aspects of the movement, though Hunt continued to emphasise the
spiritualsignificance of art, seeking to reconcile religion and science by
making accurate observations and studiesof locations in Egypt and Israel for
his paintings on biblical subjects. In contrast, Millais abandoned
Pre-Raphaelitism after 1860, adopting a much broader and looser style
influenced by Reynolds. This reversalof principles was condemned by William
Morris and others.The movement influenced the work of many later British
artists well into the twentieth century.Rossetti later came to be seen as a
precursor of the wider European Symbolist movement.In the twentieth century
artistic ideals changed and art moved away from representing reality.Since the
Pre-Rapaelites were fixed on portraying things with photographic precision,
their work was<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">devalued by critics. Recently there has
been a resurgence in interest in the movement, as Postmodernistideas have
challenged modernist values.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dante
Gabriel Rossetti</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (/ˈdænti ˈɡeɪbriəlrəˈzɛti/;[1] 12 May
1828 – 9 April 1882) was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator.
He founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848 with William Holman Hunt and
John Everett Millais. Rossetti was later to be the main inspiration for a
second generation of artists and writers influenced by the movement, most
notably William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. His work also influenced the
European Symbolists and was a major precursor of the Aesthetic movement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rossetti's art was characterised by its
sensuality and its medieval revivalism. His early poetry was influenced by John
Keats. His later poetry was characterised by the complex interlinking of
thought and feeling, especially in his sonnet sequence, The House of Life.
Poetry and image are closely entwined in Rossetti's work. He frequently wrote
sonnets to accompany his pictures, spanning from The Girlhood of Mary Virgin
(1849) and Astarte Syriaca (1877), while also creating art to illustrate poems
such as "Goblin Market" by the celebrated poet Christina Rossetti,
his sister.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rossetti's personal life was closely
linked to his work, especially his relationships with his models and muses
Elizabeth Siddal, Fanny Cornforth and Jane Morris.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Christina
Georgina Rossetti</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (5 December 1830 – 29 December 1894)
was an English poet who wrote a variety of romantic, devotional, and children's
poems. She is famous for writing Goblin Market and Remember, and the words of the
Christmas carol In the Bleak Midwinter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"Goblin Market" (composed in
April 1859 and published in 1862) is a narrative poem by Christina Rossetti. In
a letter to her publisher, Rossetti claimed that the poem, which is interpreted
frequently as having features of remarkably sexual imagery, was not meant for
children. However, in public Rossetti often stated that the poem was intended
for children, and went on to write many children's poems. When the poem
appeared in her first volume of poetry, Goblin Market and Other Poems, it was
illustrated by her brother, the Pre-Raphaelite artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"In the Bleak Midwinter" is a
Christmas carol based on a poem by the English poet Christina Rossetti written
before 1872 in response to a request from the magazine Scribner's Monthly for a
Christmas poem. It was published posthumously in Rossetti's Poetic Works in
1904.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The poem became a Christmas carol after
it appeared in The English Hymnal in 1906 with a setting by Gustav Holst.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Harold Darke's anthem setting of 1911 is
more complex and was named the best Christmas carol in a poll of some of the
world's leading choirmasters and choral experts in 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">VICTORIAN POETRY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Victorian period is characterized by
intense and prolific activity in literature, especially by<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">novelists and poets, philosophers and
essayists. Dramatists of any note are few.As with all the literature of the
Victorian era, much of the poetry of the day was concernedwith contemporary
social problems. Change, rather than stability, came to be accepted for the
first timeas normal in the nature of human outlook. Culturally and in many ways
socially, the Victorian period saw<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">the outset and display of the problems
which the 20th century had to solve. Victorian Poetry, which canbe classified
as <i>Early </i>(1837-51), <i>Mid</i>(1851-70) and <i>Late </i>(1870-1901), saw
the progress in poetic sensibilityfrom the Romantic Era to the Modernist Era.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sonnet was a popular form in
Victorian poetry, notably in the work of Christina Rossetti,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Elizabeth
Barrett Browning. Gerard Manley Hopkins experimented very boldlyin the form,
and produced some of his best work in what he claimed to be sonnets, though
they are oftenscarcely recognizable as such.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The preeminent poet of the Victorian age
was Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Although romantic in<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">subject matter, his poetry was tempered
by personal melancholy; in its mixture of social certitude andreligious doubt
it reflected the age. The poetry of Robert Browning and his wife, Elizabeth
BarrettBrowning, was immensely popular, though Elizabeth's was more venerated
during their lifetimes.Browning is best remembered for his superb dramatic
monologues. Rudyard Kipling, the poet of theempire triumphant, captured the
quality of the life of the soldiers of British expansion. Some finereligious
poetry was produced by Francis Thompson, Alice Meynell, Christina Rossetti, and
Lionel Johnson. In the middle of the 19th century the so-called
Pre-Raphaelites, led by the painter-poet DanteGabriel Rossetti, sought to
revive what they judged to be the simple, natural values and techniques
ofmedieval life and art. Their quest for a rich symbolic art led them away,
however, from the mainstream.William Morris—designer, inventor, printer, poet,
and social philosopher—was the most versatile of the<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">group, which included the poets
Christina Rossetti and Coventry Patmore.Algernon Charles Swinburne began as a
Pre-Raphaelite but soon developed his own classicallyinfluenced, sometimes
florid style. A. E. Housman and Thomas Hardy, Victorian figures who lived on
into<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">the 20th cent., share a pessimistic view
in their poetry, but Housman's well-constructed verse is rathermore
superficial. The great innovator among the late Victorian poets was the Jesuit
priest Gerard ManleyHopkins. The concentration and originality of his imagery,
as well as his jolting meter (“sprung rhythm”), had a profound effect on
20th-century poetry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During the 1890s the most conspicuous
figures on the English literary scene were the decadents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The principal figures in the group were
Arthur Symons, Ernest Dowson, and, first among them in bothnotoriety and
talent, Oscar Wilde. The Decadents' disgust with bourgeois complacency led them
toextremes of behavior and expression. However limited their accomplishments,
they pointed out thehypocrisies in Victorian values and institutions. The
sparkling, witty comedies of Oscar Wilde and thecomic operettas of W. S.
Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan were perhaps the brightest achievements of
19thcentury British drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ALFRED TENNYSON </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1809-92)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tennyson’s earliest volume of poems was
published in collaboration with his brother—<i>Poems by<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two Brothers </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1826).
While at Cambridge, he got the Chancellor’s English Medal for<i>Timbuctoo</i>.
Tennyson’s dear friend Arthur Hallam died in 1833, which occasioned <i>In
Memoriam. </i>Other major worksinclude <i>The Princess, Maud, Idylls of the
King, Enoch Arden, Queen Mary, Becket, </i>etc.Tennyson’s character was
remarkable for the combination of ruggedness and delicacy. Morbidlyshy of
strangers and publicity, he shunned public life and social interaction. His
recluse-like habitsnarrowed his outlook on life and left their mark upon his
work.Tennyson was haunted by the mystery of life, its mingled joys and pains.
But he found firmground in two positive affirmations—God and immortality. In
politics, Tennyson was an exponent of thevery cautious Liberalism of the
mid-Victorian age. Dread of revolution, of rash rupture with the past,
ofintemperate experiments lay at the very root of his thought, and made him
essentially the poet oftradition and order. Yet he was an apostle of gradual
progress. In early manhood he was enthusiasticabout science and commerce, but
alarmed at the drastic changes it brought to life. His belief inevolution,
always a steadying element in his thought, brought a certain hope back to him
at the end. Indemocracy he had no confidence, and while he showed genuine
sympathy with the masses, it wasobviously the sympathy of an aristocratic
outsider.Tennyson had the highest conception of the poet’s vocation. The moral
and spiritual power ofpoetry was always uppermost in his mind. ‘Art for art’s
sake’ was for him heresy. He attached thegreatest importance to technique and
to the labour which is necessary to attain perfection.The classic poems
including <i>Lotos-Eaters, Ulysses</i>, and <i>Tithonus</i>comprise some of
Tennyson’sfinest work. Like Keats, he was attracted by the beauty of classic
stories; like Wordsworth, he broughtout its implicit moral meaning. It was in
these semi-dramatic, semi-lyrical pieces that he found the rightvehicle for his
forte—the expression of a complex mood, with exquisite landscape harmonies. In
theEnglish Idylls and kindred poems, Tennyson followed Wordsworth in the poetry
of simple life. <i>ThePrincess </i>is a contribution to the question of the
higher education of women in the form of a serio-comicfantasy. The thesis
explored is the eternal dualism of sex: “Woman is not undeveloped man,
butdiverse.” <i>In Memoriam </i>expanded from a personal elegy to a great
religious poem. It records the spiritualstruggles that followed upon
Hallam’sdeath, and sets forth Tennyson’s faith in God and immortality. Tennyson
brooded over the religious question all his life, which has reflected in many
of his poems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tennyson’s three historical plays, <i>Harold,
Becket </i>and <i>Queen Mary </i>deal with great crises in the history ofthe
English people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ROBERT BROWNING </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1812-89)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Browning’s first published poem was the
autobiographical <i>Pauline</i>. In 1846, he married Elizabeth Barrett,then
more popular a poet than Browning himself. Browning had an intense and vigorous
personality, aboundless capacity for enjoyment. Sound in body and mind, he was
altogether unaffected by themelancholy which accompanied the spiritual upheaval
of his age. His robust optimism had its roots in itshealthy and happy nature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Browning takes his stand upon two
absolute truths—a spiritual faculty in man which enables him<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">to know spiritual reality, and a
spiritual reality that is to be known. These truths are above the intellect.God
may be conceived as power, as Wisdom and as Love. The soul craves divine love
and finds it mainlythrough the God-given faculty of love. This thought of a God
of love and the correlative principle of thesoul’s immortality provide the
philosophical grounds of Browning’s optimism. Browning’s ethical teachingis
strenuous and militant. Life is to be met boldly, not evaded; all experience is
to be made subservientto individuality and growth.Browning’s views on art
correspond completely with these ethical principles. Here again he<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">combines high spirituality with the
frankest acceptance of the natural world; here again he proclaimsthat the final
standard of values is to be found, not in achievement, but in effort and
aspiration. Art issubordinate to life and is only valuable so far as it
expresses it. The artist is seer and interpreter; heperceives, as the ordinary
man does not, the beauty and divine meaning of life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With his deeply rooted faith in freedom
as the essential condition for spiritual growth, Browning<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">was in general terms a Liberal, but his
Liberalism was highly individualistic and hostile to Socialism. There is little
in the enormous mass of his work that bears upon contemporarysocial and
political questions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Victorian Era:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
period from 1837 to 1901 is called the Victorian Age when Queen victoria was
the reigning empress of England and the British Empire throughout the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her
period marked a lot of inventions, discoveries in many fields. Roadways,
railways, the cotton industries, coal industries, steam locomotives, invention
of machines that started the industrial revolution, invention of many cures for
diseases, interest in the sciences are a few. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
led to two new changes in the English Society – the rise of the urban society
and the rise of the middle class as the most powerful class. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rise of the English
Novel<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But
the moral confusion of the people were rampant because the Church had lost its
value in society. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution had ripped people of
their beliefs in God and the writers and other intellectuals had to bring in a
sense of propriety in the minds of the people. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thus
the novel was born to edify and entertain the british middle clas. The
novelists of the Victorian era are Charles Dickens, William Makepiece
Thackeray, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), George meredith,
Anthony Trollope etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Charles Dickens:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He was the greatest novelist of the
victorian era. He was a champion of children’s rights. Most of his novels are
about children and the abuses they faced in The English workhouse. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Later,
when he turned his hand to writing, his experiences would form the foundation
for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Little Dorrit</em>,
which was set in Marshalsea Prison. The horrors of prison as seen through young
eyes also informed his second novel –<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Oliver
Twist</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>–
in which young Oliver visits Fagan in Newgate Prison.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
Victorian London was notorious for its prisons, and prison
became a recurring theme for Dickens. So Pickwick was incarcerated in Fleet
Prison in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Pickwick
Papers</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and
the Kings Bench Prison housed Mr Micawber in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>David
Copperfield</em>. Dickens’ observations of the wild, baying crowds at
executions at Newgate and Horsemonger Lane gaols were captured in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Barnaby Rudge</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and a letter to the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Morning Chronicle</em>,
respectively.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Thankfully,
many of the aspects of Victorian London that Dickens immortalised have
disappeared, such as the pitiless conditions in the workhouses famously woven
into<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Oliver
Twist</em>. The noisy, heaving livestock market at Smithfield is described in
less than flattering terms in both<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Oliver
Twist</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Great Expectations</em>,
even though it was moved during Dickens’ lifetime. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Not only was Dickens immensely popular during his own lifetime but, over
a century later, it is still Dickens’ stories, letters and essays that bring
Victorian London to life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="background: #EEEEEE;">His Social Conscience </span><span style="background: #eeeeee; font-family: "symbol";"></span><span style="background: #EEEEEE;"> He crusaded for children’s rights. </span><span style="background: #eeeeee; font-family: "symbol";"></span><span style="background: #EEEEEE;"> He was an advocate of child labor laws to protect
children. </span><span style="background: #eeeeee; font-family: "symbol";"></span><span style="background: #EEEEEE;"> He opposed cruelty,
deprivation, and corporal punishment of children. </span><span style="background: #eeeeee; font-family: "symbol";"></span><span style="background: #EEEEEE;"> He protested a greedy, uncaring, materialistic
society through such works as <i>A Christmas
Carol</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="background: #EEEEEE;">He is buried in the Poets’
Corner in Westminster Abbey in London</span><span style="background: #eeeeee; font-family: "symbol";"></span><span style="background: #EEEEEE;"> Dickens’ epitaph: “He was a sympathizer to the
poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England’s
greatest writers is lost to the world.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b><span style="background: #EEEEEE;">William
Makepiece Thackeray<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="background: #EEEEEE;">Thackeray was born in India
in 1811. </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">In the fall of 1840 Thackeray's
wife suffered a mental breakdown from which she never recovered. This
experience profoundly affected his character and work. He became more
sympathetic and less harsh in his judgments, and came to value domestic
affection as the greatest good thing in life. These new attitudes emerged
clearly in the best of his early stories, "The History of Samuel Titmarsh
and the Great Hoggarty Diamond"(1841). In this tale an obscure (not distinct)
clerk rises to sudden success and wealth but finds true happiness only after
ruin has brought him back to</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.notablebiographies.com/knowledge/Hearth.html" title="View 'hearth' definition from Wikipedia">hearth</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">and home.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<i>Vanity Fair</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">(1847–1848) established Thackeray's fame permanently.
Thackeray's writing style was formed in opposition to Dickens's accusation of
social evils, and against the artificial style and</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.notablebiographies.com/knowledge/Sentimentality.html" title="View 'sentimentality' definition from Wikipedia">sentimentality</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">(emotionalism) of life and moral (having to do with
right and wrong) values of the popular historical romances. Although critical
of society, Thackeray remained basically conservative (a person who prefers to
preserve existing social and political situations without change). He was one
of the first English writers of the time to portray the commonplace with
greater realism. This approach was carried on in the English novel by Anthony
Trollope (1815–1882).</span><br />
<b> Victorian Prose Writers</b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
The early Victorian prose is in keeping with the energetic
temperament of the time. An expansive energy seems to be characteristic of the
whole period, displaying itself as freely in literature as in the development
of science,geographical exploration and the rpidity of economic change. </div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="more"></a>This energetic mood prescribes the
inventiveness and fertility of the prose-writers of the period and explains the
vitality of so many of their works. Carlyle’s <i>The French Revolution, </i>Ruskin’s<i>Modern
Painters </i>and <span lang="EN-GB">Arnold’s<i> Essays
in Criticism </i>are not modest and light-hearted compositions, but they
represent the aesthetic equivalent of self-assertion and an urgent ‘will to
survive’ which was characteristic of the early Victorians.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>John Ruskin: <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">John Ruskin, an only child,
was largely educated at home, where he was given a taste for art by his
father’s collecting of contemporary watercolours and a minute and comprehensive
knowledge of the Bible by his piously Protestant mother.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
John Ruskin has long been admired by the world because
of his subtle insight into all forms of beauty i-e art. It is now understood
that Ruskin forth alone , as the supreme master of English prose (language). He
has done more as a preacher and prophet than as master of art. It is his
aesthetic impulse that has won him a supreme and high honour.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
Ruskin not only surpasses all the contemporary writers
of prose but also calls out matchless English language notes. He bends language
to many uses as a flexible instrument _argument , pictorical description ,
eulogy, invective, persuation and passionate appeal etc. Thus the mighty
fantasies, the pathetic melodies in words and the composition of long books are
the qualities rolled forth by none but Ruskin. Ruskin’s style has all the
qualities such as diction, sentence structure , variety, imagery, rhythm,
coherence , emphasis and arrangement of ideas.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Another feature of Ruskin’s style is the length of his
sentences. Since seventeenth century, he is the first writer who wrote the
sentences of twenty or thirty lines and even more of a whole page. Simetimes
his sentence has 200, 250 or 280 words without a single puase _ each sentence
with , 40, 59, 60 commas, colons and semicolons. But this extraordinary length
of his sentences does not create any disturbance because of a subtle case and
harmony.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span class="apple-converted-space">His most famous prose
work Is Sesame and Lilies and the Stones of Venice. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Thomas Carlyle: <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-converted-space">Carlyle
was the dominanat figure of the Victorian period. He made his influence felt in
every department of Victorian life. In the general prose literature of his age,
he was incomparably the greate st figure, and one of the greatest moral forces.
In his youth, he suffered from doubts which assailed him during the many dark
years of infidelity trying to recover his lost faith in God. Suddenly, there
came moments of courage and faith. The history of the years of his struggle and
his ultimate triumph was the theme of his second book Sartor Resartus. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">His style reflects his personality. He twists the
language to suit his needs. In order to achieve this he makes use of many
foreign words and english translations of foreign words. His famous works are
French Revolution and Heroes and Hero Worship. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>Impressionism in literature<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Impressionistic literature can be defined as a
work created by an author that centers on the thinking and feelings of the
characters and allows the reader to draw his or her own interpretations and
conclusions about their meaning.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
Absolutely,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Heart of Darkness</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is often cited as one
of the preeminent examples of Impressionistic literature. <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>Marcel Proust: <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Proust spent several years
reading</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Carlyle</span></a><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Emerson</span></a><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">, and</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">John Ruskin</span></a><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">.
Through this reading Proust began to refine his own theories of art and the
role of the artist in society.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Ruskin's
view of artistic production was central to this conception, and Ruskin's work
was so important to Proust that he claimed to know "by heart" several
of Ruskin's books, including</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>The
Seven Lamps of Architecture<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Proust’s masterpiece was
Remembrnce of Things Past. Although Proust had by 1909 gathered most of the
material that became</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>À la recherche du temps perdu</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">(Remembrance of Things Past), he still felt unable to
structure the material. In</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.notablebiographies.com/knowledge/January_1909.html" title="View 'january 1909' definition from Wikipedia">January 1909</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">the combination of flavors in a cup of tea and toast
brought him sensations that reminded him of his youth in his grandfather's
garden. These feelings revealed the hidden self that Proust had spoken of in</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Contre
Sainte-Beuve,</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">and he felt that the process of artistic rebirth was
the theme his novel required. In</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>À la recherche du temps perdu</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Proust was mainly concerned with describing not real life
but his narrator Marcel's view of it. Marcel traces his growth through a number
of remembered experiences and realizes that these experiences reflect his inner
life more truly than does his outer life.</span><br />
<br />
<b>James Joyce</b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-indent: .5in;">
James Joyce was born in Ireland and was known to be
intelligent with a wit to writing right from his childhood. Also he could speak
17 languages including Arabic and Sanskrit. His first two works made him known
to other writers who liked his unconventional style. The two works wre
Dubliners and the Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">The same year that the</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Dubliners</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">came out, Joyce embarked on what would prove to be his
landmark novel:</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Ulysses</em><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">.
The story recounts a single day in Dublin. The date: June 16, 1904, the same
day that Joyce and Barnacle met. On the surface, the novel follows the story
three central characters, Stephen Dedalus, Leopold Bloom, a Jewish advertising
canvasser, and his wife Molly Bloom, as well as the city life that unfolds
around them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>Symbolist
movement in Literature: W.B. Yeats<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">W.B. Yeats is considered as the founder of symbolic school
of poetry.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yeats
was a symbolist and he was a symbolist from the beginning of his career to the
end.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
term symbolism is derived from a Greek verb: ‘Symbollein’, means ‘to put
together.’ A symbol means, a mark, token or sign. It means representation of
some hidden things through a sign or mark that is called a symbol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When an unseen thing or idea is
expressed through seen, we use a symbol. The symbolism is the presentation of
objects, moods and ideas through the medium of symbols.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yeats
was much influenced by French writers but his symbolism was based on the poetry
of Blake, Shelley and Rossetti. He had been called as the greatest poet.
According to him, symbol gives voice to the dumb things; it gives body to the
bodiless things. He was against personal symbols. Tower is also one of the
greatest symbols of Yeats. It is a symbol of spiritual worship.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
<i>A Prayer for My Daughter</i>, the Tower
symbolizes the dark future for mankind. In another poem, he compares the Swan
with a solitary soul. The <i>Second Coming</i>
is a famous poem of Yeats and also remarkable for using symbols. Yeats says:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Turning and turning in the widening
gyre,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Falcon cannot hear the falconer:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Things fall apart; the centre cannot
hold;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
5: The Modern Age (Post 1901)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Imagist Poetry<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Imagism</b> is a type of poetry that describes
images with simple language and great focus. It came out of the Modernist
movement in poetry. In the early 1900s, poets abandoned the old ways of writing
poems and created a new movement in poetry called <b>Modernism</b>. Modernist
poets changed the style and content of poetry by abandoning rhyme and meter,
among other things. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Some Modernist poets began to focus on <a href="http://study.com/academy/lesson/imagery-in-poetry-definition-examples-types.html">imagery</a>
in poetry. In traditional poetry, images are described in great detail with
many words, and then they are linked to a philosophical idea or theme. But some
of the Modernist poets decided that the best way to write poetry was to
describe things with simple and few words. In addition, many of them did not
explicitly discuss the ideas and themes of the poem. </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Imagism is a subset of Modernism
that focuses on simply described images and little more. In Imagist poetry, the
writer does not talk about the themes behind the image; they let the image
itself be the focus of the poem. There were many famous American Imagist poets,
including Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Amy Lowell. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Rules of Imagism<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ezra Pound, one of the founders of
Imagism, said that there were three tenets, or rules, to writing Imagist
poetry. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Direct treatment of the subject.</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That is, the poem should deal
directly with what's being talked about, not try to use fancy words and
phrases to talk about it. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use no word that does not contribute to the
presentation.</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Use as few words as possible. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Compose in the rhythm of the musical phrase, not in the
rhythm of the metronome.</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In other words, create new rhythms instead of relying
on the old, boring ones. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ezra Pound<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet most
responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. In the
early teens of the twentieth century, he opened a seminal exchange of work and
ideas between British and American writers, and was famous for the generosity
with which he advanced the work of such major contemporaries as <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/w-b-yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/robert-frost">Robert Frost</a>, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/william-carlos-williams">William
Carlos Williams</a>, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/marianne-moore">Marianne Moore</a>, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/h-d">H. D.</a>, James Joyce,
Ernest Hemingway, and especially <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/t-s-eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
His own significant contributions to poetry begin
with his promulgation of <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/text/brief-guide-imagism">Imagism</a>, a
movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and
Japanese poetry—stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language and
foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound’s words, “compose
in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.”
His later work, for nearly fifty years, focused on the encyclopedic epic poem
he entitled <i>The Cantos</i>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Poets of the Thirties</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Wilfred Owen</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
On March 18, 1893, Wilfred Edward Salter Owen was
born in Shropshire, England. After the death of his grandfather in 1897, the
family moved to Birkenhead, where Owen was educated at the Birkenhead
Institute. After another move in 1906, he continued his studies at the
Technical School in Shrewsbury. Interested in the arts at a young age, Owen
began to experiment with poetry at 17.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
After failing to gain entrance into the University
of London, Owen spent a year as a lay assistant to Reverend Herbert Wigan in
1911 and went on to teach in France at the Berlitz School of English. By 1915,
he had become increasingly interested in World War I and enlisted in the
Artists’ Rifles group. After training in England, Owen was commissioned as a
second lieutenant.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
He was wounded in combat in 1917 and evacuated to
Craiglockhart War Hospital near Edinburgh after being diagnosed with shell
shock. There he met another patient, poet Siegfried Sassoon, who served as a
mentor and introduced him to well-known literary figures such as <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/robert-graves">Robert Graves</a> and
H. G. Wells.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
It was at this time Owen wrote many of his most
important poems, including “Anthem for Doomed Youth” and “Dulce et Decorum
Est.” His poetry often graphically illustrated the horrors of warfare, the
physical landscapes that surrounded him, and the human body in relation to
those landscapes. His verses stand in stark contrast to the patriotic poems of
war written by earlier poets of Great Britain, such as Rupert Brooke.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Owen rejoined his regiment in Scarborough in June
1918, and in August, he returned to France. He was awarded the Military Cross
for bravery at Amiens. He was killed on November 4 of that year while
attempting to lead his men across the Sambre-Oise canal at Ors. He was 25 years
old. The news reached his parents on November 11, Armistice Day. The collected <i>Poems
of Wilfred Owen</i> appeared in December 1920, with an introduction by Sassoon,
and he has since become one of the most admired poets of World War I.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
A review of Owen’s poems published on December 29,
1920, just two years after his death, read, “Others have shown the
disenchantment of war, have unlegended the roselight and romance of it, but
none with such compassion for the disenchanted nor such sternly just and justly
stern judgment on the idyllisers.”</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
About Owen’s post-war audience, the writer Geoff
Dyer said, “To a nation stunned by grief, the prophetic lag of posthumous
publication made it seem that Owen was speaking from the other side of the
grave. Memorials were one sign of the shadow cast by the dead over England in
the twenties; another was a surge of interest in spiritualism. Owen was the
medium through whom the missing spoke.”</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">W H Auden<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Wystan Hugh Auden was born in York, England, on
February 21, 1907. He moved to Birmingham during childhood and was educated at
Christ Church, Oxford. As a young man he was influenced by the poetry of <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/thomas-hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> and <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/robert-frost">Robert Frost</a>, as
well as <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/william-blake">William
Blake</a>, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/emily-dickinson">Emily
Dickinson</a>, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/gerard-manley-hopkins">Gerard Manley
Hopkins</a>, and Old English verse. At Oxford his precocity as a poet was
immediately apparent, and he formed lifelong friendships with two fellow
writers, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/stephen-spender">Stephen
Spender</a> and Christopher Isherwood.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
In 1928, his collection <i>Poems</i> was privately
printed, but it wasn’t until 1930, when another collection titled <i>Poems</i>
(though its contents were different) was published, that Auden was established
as the leading voice of a new generation.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Ever since, he has been admired for his unsurpassed
technical virtuosity and an ability to write poems in nearly every imaginable
verse form; the incorporation in his work of popular culture, current events,
and vernacular speech; and also for the vast range of his intellect, which drew
easily from an extraordinary variety of literatures, art forms, social and
political theories, and scientific and technical information. He had a
remarkable wit, and often mimicked the writing styles of other poets such as
Dickinson, <a href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poet/w-b-yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>,
and Henry James. His poetry frequently recounts, literally or metaphorically, a
journey or quest, and his travels provided rich material for his verse.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
He visited Germany, Iceland, and China, served in
the Spanish Civil war, and in 1939 moved to the United States, where he met his
lover, Chester Kallman, and became an American citizen. His own beliefs changed
radically between his youthful career in England, when he was an ardent
advocate of socialism and Freudian psychoanalysis, and his later phase in
America, when his central preoccupation became Christianity and the theology of
modern Protestant theologians. A prolific writer, Auden was also a noted playwright,
librettist, editor, and essayist. Generally considered the greatest English
poet of the twentieth century, his work has exerted a major influence on
succeeding generations of poets on both sides of the Atlantic.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
W. H. Auden served as a <a href="https://www.poets.org/academy-american-poets/chancellors">c</a><a href="https://www.poets.org/academy-american-poets/chancellors">hancellor</a>
of the Academy of American Poets from 1954 to 1973, and divided most of the
second half of his life between residences in New York City and Austria. He
died in Vienna on September 29, 1973.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Essay: Huxley<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The variety of his essays</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In his preface to his <i>Collected
Essays, </i>Aldous Huxley tells us that essays belong to “a literary species
whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within three poles of
reference.” The first is the personal and autobiographical. The second is the
objective, the factual, the concrete-particular. The third is the
abstract-universal. Huxley did not make use of the autobiographical material on
any big scale, but it does make its appearance, time and again, and lends grace
to his essays. Under the second heading we can place the pamphleteering essays
about the bomb, and drugs, and the two cultures. The third kind of essays he
wrote rather late in his life. He thus describes the range of his essays:
“Essays autobiographical. Essays about things seen and places visited. Essays
in criticism of all kinds of works of art, literary, plastic, musical. Essays
about philosophy and religion, some of them couched in abstract terms, others
in the form of an anthology with comments, others again in which general ideas
are approached through the concrete facts of history and biography. Essays
finally, in which, following Montaigne, I have tried to make the best of all
The essay’s three worlds, have tried to say everything at once in as near an
approach to contrapuntal simultaneity as the nature of literary art will allow
of.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His essays relevant to his times</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
be an essayist, a writer must have the gift of style and this Huxley
undoubtedly had and in an abundant measure too. Huxley had a vast knowledge
also, which was gained from much travel, immense reading, and constant meeting
with intelligent people. He had a full mind and an unquenchable spirit of
inquiry. His essays are relevant to the situation in his time and ours, and
give us a real view of the intellectual life of the western man during the
period in which they were written. It was a time of revolution and upheaval. It
was a time of the knowledge explosion. The knowledge explosion was bringing
forward so much that was old and had been forgotten, as well as what was
altogether new and revolutionary. Huxley believed that behind all the
appearances there is reality, and for him the reality was the unitive knowledge
of God. All his work leads to that, and his essays record the search and the
affirmation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The discursive quality of his essays</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 3.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Huxley
had an intelligence which always amused and braced the reader. He had the
discursive quality which is native to the essay-form. In writing his essays he
could begin anywhere; anything started him off, and he proceeded without, any
jerks or jumps to a serious consideration of one of the many subjects which
absorbed him. He himself had the quality which he found in Montaigne and which
he thus describes: “Free association artistically controlled—this is the
paradoxical secret of Montaigne’s best essays. One damned thing after
another—but in a sequence that, in some almost miraculous way, develops a
central theme and relates it to the rest of human experience.” Huxley is nearly
always easy to read, though sometimes he expects close attention to an abstract
argument. He is never trivial. The world and the times were too wonderfully
exciting to permit light-heartedness or triviality. However, some of his essays
are as gay and light as a short story. And the endings may be a rounding of the
subject into a calm finale, or an unexpected flash of wit, or a jest. The final
gesture was part of his style.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drama: G B Shaw<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Before </span><a href="http://ardhendude.blogspot.in/search/label/George%20%20Bernard%20Shaw" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">George Bernard Shaw</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
started his career as a dramatist, the English drama had already entered into a
new phase of development under the influence of the Norweigian playwright
Henrik Ibsen. The romantic tradition of the Elizabethan drama which held the
English stage for more than three centuries began to lose its influence from
the middle of the nineteenth century. “Is drama to be limited to the surface
characteristics of a life that is no longer lived in surface, or will drama </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">characteristics of a life that is no
longer lived in surface, or will drama reflect in form and substances the
deepest life of the time?” This was the question which vigorously agitated the
mind of the mid-Victorian dramatists. They finally realized that the new drama
had a serious purpose to server and it should be brought in line discarded the
romantic tradition of the Old English drama and accepted the real and serious
problem of the age as the themes of the new English drama. In the absence of
any British playwright to supply them with motive and model they drew
inspiration from the continental playwrights particularly from Ibsen who had
already made social problems of his time the subjects of his plays.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By the time young </span><a href="http://ardhendude.blogspot.in/search/label/George%20%20Bernard%20Shaw" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"> Bernard </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> appeared on the scene of the
English drama, Ibsen had been sufficiently known to the English playwrights and
his creative influence felt by them. “Ibsen had taught men that drama, if it
was to live a true life of its own, must deal with human emotions, with things
near and dear to ordinary men and women. Hence the melodramatic romanticism and
the chill pseudo-classic remoteness alike disappeared in favor of a treatment
of actual English life, first of aristocratic existence, then of middleclass
lives, and finally of laboring conditions. With the treatment of actual life
the drama became more and more a drama of ideas, sometimes veiled in the man
action, sometimes didactically set forth. These ideas were for the most part
revolutionary, so that drama came to form an advanced battleground for a rising
school of young thinkers. Revolt took the form of reaction to past literacy
models, to current social conventions and to the prevailing morality of
Victorian England.” They were T. W. Robertson, A. W. Pibero and Arthur Henry
Jones. They wrote plays both of social interest and literary merit for the
first time in England in imitation of the continental playwrights and initiated
the movement for a new type of play called “The Naturalistic Play”. The plays
written by these three playwrights contained “the rudiments of an Ibsenist
motive” but they could not attain the excellence of an Ibsenist play. These
plays are characterized by an abundant display of “artificial sentiment, verbal
polish, and cynical elegance.” Whatever be their defects, it is true that they
rescued the English drama from a state of chaos and set it on the right course.
Along with these plays of social interest appeared also the plays of Oscar
Wilde who wrote on the principle of “art for art’s sake” and attained
considerable popularity at the time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable">
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<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://ardhendude.blogspot.in/search/label/George%20%20Bernard%20Shaw" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">George Bernard
Shaw</span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When young </span><a href="http://ardhendude.blogspot.in/search/label/George%20%20Bernard%20Shaw" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"> Bernard </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> came to London this movement
for the new drama had already set in. He got the movement quite ready for him.
He at once plunged vigorously into the movement and made himself known first as
a dramatic critic and then as a dramatist. He was a staunch champion of Ibsen
and his new drama. He was a formidable opponent of the pure aesthetic principle
of art. He vigorously denounced the “art for art’s sake” attitude prevailing at
the time when he started writing Plays. His watch word was “art for art’s
sake”. “For art’s sake’ alone I would not face the toil of writing a single
sentence” said he. He was “a natural literary artist fettered by reforming
zeal,” and his plays were “a continuous record of the long struggle between
artist and moralist”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://ardhendude.blogspot.in/search/label/George%20%20Bernard%20Shaw" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">George Bernard Shaw</span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> was an artist by nature but a
propagandist by profession. He subordinated his artistic ability to his moral
purpose. Thinking that “the stage was the finest platform in the world,” he
“climbed on to the stage. Taught himself the dramatists job, and in addition to
being a great controversialist became am almost supremely great dramatist.” His
drams are vehicles of propaganda and his characters are “mechanical mouth-pieces”
to express his own views on social, political, religious and moral problems of
the age. He sought for and achieved a significant and harmonious union of
literacy and theatrical qualities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">H. Pearson has made the following
estimate of Shaw’s achievement as a dramatist:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“From 1895 to 1898 Shaw, as a
dramatic critic, ceaselessly attacked fashionable drama of the age, championed
Ibsen, prepared the way for his own comedies and incidentally wrote the
wittiest and most provocative essays in the history of journalism. His attack
was successful. The so-called ‘well made play gave place to the drama of ideas,
and the Shavian Theatre was finally established in the early years of the
present century.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At first the London managers would
not look at </span><a href="http://ardhendude.blogspot.in/search/label/George%20%20Bernard%20Shaw" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">George Bernard Shaw</span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">’s plays. Instead of the denouements
and state situation and commonplace sentiments to which they were accustomed,
he gave them social satire, unconventional philosophy and brainy dialogue. One
of his early plays was booed and brainy dialogue. One of his early plays was
booed, another was censored, a third failed. Still he pegged away, and when his
chance came in 1904 at the Court Theatre, he produced his own comedies, trained
his own actors and created his own audiences. After that the London managers
clamored for his plays. But the critics, uninfluenced by box-office
considerations, were not so easily persuaded, and for more than a generation
many of them went on repeating that his plays were not plays; an attitude he
derisively encouraged by calling them conversations, discussions, history
lessons, and so on. What made his works so novel was that he revived the
classical technique of play writing, applying it to modern problems; he adopted
the method of the Greek dramatists in order to deal with the topics of the
hour. While the essence of his plays is as original as Shaw himself, their
novelty lay in the fact that he used the theatre as another man would use a
newspaper, a pulpit, or a platform; many of his comedies are half-sermon,
half-debate, and every conceivable subject is discussed, from love. Marriage
and family life to religion, science and politics, his laboriously acquired
knowledge of social conditions, and his creed as a socialist informing most of
them. Being an inspired dramatist, not a manufacturer of entertainment, he did
not plan or plot his plays in advance. While engaged on them he never saw a
page ahead and never knew what was going to happen. The forms they took were
inevitable, though he worked as carefully at the writing of them as the most
industrious craftsman.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Novels: H G Wells<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">H.G. Wells, </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">in full Herbert George Wells (born
Sept. 21, 1866, Bromley, </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kent-county-England"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Kent</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, Eng.—died Aug. 13, 1946, </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/London"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">London</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">) English novelist, journalist,
sociologist, and historian best known for such </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/science-fiction"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">science
fiction</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> novels as
</span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Time-Machine"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">The Time Machine</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> and </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Worlds-novel-by-Wells"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">The War of the Worlds</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> and such comic novels as </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tono-Bungay"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Tono-Bungay</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> and <i>The History of Mr. Polly</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Early
writings<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wells’s first published book was a <i>Textbook
of </i></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/biology"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Biology</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1893). With his first </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/novel"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">novel</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31600"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Time-Machine"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The Time
Machine</span></a></i> (1895), which was immediately successful, he began a
series of science fiction novels that revealed him as a writer of marked
originality and an immense fecundity of ideas: <i>The Wonderful Visit</i>
(1895), </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Island-of-Doctor-Moreau-by-Wells"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">The Island of Doctor Moreau</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1896), </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Invisible-Man-novel-by-Wells"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">The Invisible Man</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1897), <i>The War of the Worlds</i>
(1898), <i>The </i></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/First-Men-in-the-Moon"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">First Men in the Moon</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1901), and <i>The Food of the Gods</i>
(1904). He also wrote many short stories, which were collected in <i>The Stolen
Bacillus</i> (1895), <i>The Plattner Story</i> (1897), and <i>Tales of Space
and Time</i> (1899). For a time he acquired a reputation as a prophet of the
future, and indeed, in <i>The War in the Air</i> (1908), he foresaw certain
developments in the military use of aircraft. But his imagination flourished at
its best not in the manner of the comparatively mechanical anticipations of </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jules-Verne"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Jules
Verne</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> but in
the astronomical fantasies of <i>The First Men in the Moon</i> and <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31601"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Worlds-novel-by-Wells"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The War of
the Worlds</span></a></i>, from the latter of which the image of the Martian
has passed into popular mythology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Behind his inventiveness lay a
passionate concern for man and society, which increasingly broke into the
fantasy of his science fiction, often diverting it into satire and sometimes,
as in <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref997583"></a><i>The Food of the Gods</i>, destroying its
credibility. Eventually, Wells decided to abandon science fiction for comic
novels of lower middle-class life, most notably in <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31602"></a><i>Love
and Mr. Lewisham</i> (1900), <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31603"></a><i>Kipps: The Story of a
Simple Soul</i> (1905), and <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31604"></a><i>The History of Mr. Polly</i>
(1910). In these novels, and in <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31605"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tono-Bungay"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Tono-Bungay</span></a></i> (1909), he
drew on memories of his own earlier life, and, through the thoughts of
inarticulate yet often ambitious heroes, revealed the hopes and frustrations of
clerks, shop assistants, and underpaid teachers, who had rarely before been
treated in fiction with such sympathetic understanding. In these novels, too,
he made his liveliest, most persuasive comment on the problems of Western
society that were soon to become his main preoccupation. The sombre vision of a
dying world in <i>The Time Machine</i> shows that, in his long-term view of
humanity’s prospects, Wells felt much of the pessimism prevalent in the 1890s.
In his short-term view, however, his study of biology led him to hope that
human society would evolve into higher forms, and with <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31606"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anticipations-of-the-Reaction-of-Mechanical-and-Scientific-Progress-upon-Human-Life-and-Thought"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Anticipations</span></a></i>
(1901), <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31607"></a><i>Mankind in the Making</i> (1903), and <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31608"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/A-Modern-Utopia"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">A Modern
Utopia</span></a></i> (1905), he took his place in the British public’s mind as
a leading preacher of the doctrine of social progress. About this time, too, he
became an active socialist, and in 1903 joined the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31609"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fabian-Society"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Fabian Society</span></a>, though he
soon began to criticize its methods. The bitter quarrel he precipitated by his
unsuccessful attempt to wrest control of the </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fabian-Society"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Fabian
Society</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> from <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31610"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Bernard-Shaw"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">George
Bernard Shaw</span></a> and <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31612"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31611"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Sidney and
Beatrice Webb</span></a> in 1906–07 is retold in his novel <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31613"></a><i>The
New Machiavelli</i> (1911), in which the Webbs are parodied as the Baileys.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Middle
and late works<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After about 1906 the pamphleteer and
the novelist were in conflict in Wells, and only <i>The History of Mr. Polly</i>
and the lighthearted <i>Bealby</i> (1915) can be considered primarily as
fiction. His later novels are mainly discussions of social or political themes
that show little concern for the novel as a literary form. Wells himself
affected not to care about the literary merit of his work, and he rejected the
tutelage of the American novelist <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31614"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-James-American-writer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Henry James</span></a>,
saying, “I would rather be called a journalist than an artist.” Indeed, his
novel <i>Boon</i> (1915) included a spiteful parody of James. His next novel, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31615"></a><i>Mr. Britling Sees It Through</i> (1916), though touched by
the prejudice and shortsightedness of wartime, gives a brilliant picture of the
English people in </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">World War I</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">World War I shook Wells’s faith in
even short-term human progress, and in subsequent works he modified his
conception of social evolution, putting forward the view that man could only
progress if he would adapt himself to changing circumstances through knowledge
and education. To help bring about this process of adaptation Wells began an
ambitious work of popular education, of which the main products were <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31616"></a><i>The Outline of History</i> (1920; revised 1931), <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31617"></a><i>The Science of Life</i> (1931), cowritten with Julian
Huxley and G.P. Wells (his elder son by his second wife), and <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31618"></a><i>The
Work, Wealth, and Happiness of Mankind</i> (1932). At the same time he
continued to publish works of fiction, in which his gifts of narrative and
dialogue give way almost entirely to polemics. His sense of humour reappears,
however, in the reminiscences of his <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31619"></a><i>Experiment in
Autobiography</i> (1934).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1933 Wells published a novelized
version of a film script, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31620"></a><i>The Shape of Things to Come</i>.
(Produced by </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Korda"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Alexander Korda</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, the film <i>Things to Come</i> [1936] remains, on account of
its special effects, one of the outstanding British films of the 20th century.)
Wells’s version reverts to the utopianism of some earlier books, but as a whole
his outlook grew steadily less optimistic, and some of his later novels contain
much that is bitterly satiric. Fear of a tragic wrong turning in the
development of the human race, to which he had early given imaginative
expression in the grotesque animal mutations of <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31621"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Island-of-Doctor-Moreau-by-Wells"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The Island of
Doctor Moreau</span></a></i>, dominates the short novels and fables he wrote in
the later 1930s. Wells was now ill and aging. With the outbreak of </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">World
War II</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, he lost
all confidence in the future, and in <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref31622"></a><i>Mind at the End of
Its Tether</i> (1945) he depicts a bleak vision of a world in which nature has
rejected, and is destroying, humankind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Virginia Woolf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stream of consciousness, </span></b><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/narrative"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">narrative</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> technique in nondramatic fiction
intended to render the flow of myriad impressions—visual, auditory, physical,
associative, and subliminal—that impinge on the </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/consciousness"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">consciousness</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> of an individual and form part of
his awareness along with the trend of his rational thoughts. The term was first
used by the psychologist <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref94594"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-James"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">William James</span></a>
in <i>The Principles of Psychology</i> (1890). As the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref94595"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/psychological-novel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">psychological
novel</span></a> developed in the 20th century, some writers attempted to
capture the total flow of their characters’ consciousness, rather than limit
themselves to rational thoughts. To represent the full richness, speed, and
subtlety of the </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/mind"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">mind</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> at work, the writer incorporates snatches of incoherent
thought, ungrammatical constructions, and free association of ideas, images,
and words at the pre-speech level.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The stream-of-consciousness </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/novel"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">novel</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> commonly uses the narrative
techniques of <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref94596"></a><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/interior-monologue"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">interior
monologue</span></a>. Probably the most famous example is </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Joyce"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">James
Joyce</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">’s <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref94597"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ulysses-novel-by-Joyce"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ulysses</span></a></i>
(1922), a complex evocation of the inner states of the characters Leopold and
Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus. Other notable examples include <i>Leutnant
Gustl</i> (1901) by </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arthur-Schnitzler"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Arthur Schnitzler</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, an early use of stream of consciousness to re-create the
atmosphere of pre-World War I Vienna; </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Faulkner"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">William Faulkner</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">’s <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref94598"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Sound-and-the-Fury-novel-by-Faulkner"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The Sound and
the Fury</span></a></i> (1929), which records the fragmentary and
impressionistic responses in the minds of three members of the Compson family
to events that are immediately being experienced or events that are being
remembered; and </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Virginia-Woolf"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Virginia Woolf</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">’s <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ref935535"></a><i><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Waves"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The Waves</span></a></i> (1931), a
complex novel in which six characters recount their lives from childhood to old
age.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Adeline Virginia Woolf</b> (née <b>Stephen</b>;
25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941), known professionally as <b>Virginia Woolf</b>,
was an English writer and one of the foremost <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_literature" title="Modernist literature">modernists</a> of the twentieth century.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
During the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar
period</a>, Woolf was a significant figure in London literary society and a
central figure in the influential <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury
Group</a> of intellectuals. Her most famous works include the novels <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs_Dalloway" title="Mrs Dalloway"><i>Mrs
Dalloway</i></a> (1925), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_the_Lighthouse" title="To the
Lighthouse"><i>To the Lighthouse</i></a> (1927) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando:_A_Biography" title="Orlando: A Biography"><i>Orlando</i></a> (1928), and the book-length
essay <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Room_of_One%27s_Own" title="A Room of One's Own"><i>A Room of One's Own</i></a> (1929), with its
famous dictum, "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to
write fiction."</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Woolf suffered from severe bouts of mental illness
throughout her life, thought to have been what is now termed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar
disorder">bipolar
disorder</a>,<sup> </sup>and committed suicide by drowning in 1941 at the age
of 59.</div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-10055847655802151522017-05-05T23:28:00.001-07:002017-05-05T23:29:13.724-07:00British Literature II - University of Madras: Revised Syllabus BA English, W.e.f June 2016, (Sem II Compiled Text)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">British
Literature<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
1: Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit-1:
Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Impact of the Industrial, Agrarian
and the French Revolutions on the English society, Humanitarian Movements in
England, the Reform Bills and the spread of education</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="quick-answer-content"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Agricultural Revolution that swept
through Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries came many years after the
first Agricultural Revolution recorded by historians, which took place around
10,000 B.C. While the first revolution introduced a societal change from nomadic
lifestyles to stationary farms and villages, the second revolution occurred
because of an influx of new technologies that improved farming techniques and
made farming more efficient.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="full-answer-content"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During the European Agricultural
Revolution, societies continued to live stationary lifestyles, but farming
shifted from just sustaining families and communities to providing economic
benefits too. The climate around Europe gradually grew warmer during the later
part of the 17th century and early years of the 18th century, which in turn
allowed for the introduction of new crops, and more of them. Warmer
temperatures also brought longer growing seasons, which in turn allowed for
production of more crops. Machines replaced human labor, minimizing costs for
farmers and expediting production, and crops were grown on larger scales, then
harvested and shipped for sale. </span></span><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The
Agricultural Revolution was caused by four primary factors:<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 37.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">the increased
availability of and access to farmland, <o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 37.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">a warm and
stable climate for crop production, <o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 37.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">an increase in
number of livestock <o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 37.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="quick-answer-content"><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">a more
voluminous crop yield.</span></strong><span class="quick-answer-content"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="header1" style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Agrarian revolution in Britain</b></div>
<div class="bodytext1" style="line-height: 115%;">
Agrarian Revolution began in
Britain then spread to the rest of the world. Before the revolution,
agriculture was practiced on small scale using simple tools like sticks, wooden
hoes and wooden ploughs. They mainly practiced mono cropping, ie they grew only
one type of crop in the same place every year.</div>
<div class="md-content-block" style="line-height: 115%;">
<span class="srtitle">Agricultural revolution</span><strong>
</strong><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">was the</span></strong><strong> </strong>gradual transformation
from the traditional agricultural system followed in Britain in the 18th
century. Aspects of this complex transformation, which was not completed until
the 19th century, included the reallocation of land ownership to make farms
more compact and an increased investment in technical improvements, such as new
machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/breeding">breeding</a>, and
experimentation with new crops and systems of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/crop-rotation">crop rotation</a>.</div>
<div class="md-content-block" style="line-height: 115%;">
Among those new
crop-rotation methods was the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norfolk-four-course-system">Norfolk
four-course system</a>, established in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Norfolk-county-England">Norfolk county</a>,
England, which emphasized fodder crops and the absence of the theretofore
conventionally employed fallow year. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/wheat">Wheat</a> was grown in the first
year and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/turnip">turnips</a> in the
second, followed by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/barley-cereal">barley</a>,
with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/clover-plant">clover</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/ryegrass">ryegrass</a> undersown in the
third. The clover and ryegrass were cut for feed or grazed in the fourth year.
In the winter, cattle and sheep were fed the turnips. The development of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/Shorthorn">Shorthorn</a> beef cattle
through selective breeding of local cattle of the Teeswater district, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Durham-unitary-authority-England">Durham
county</a>, typified the advances brought about by scientific breeding.</div>
<div class="bodytext1" style="line-height: 115%;">
Thus Agrarian revolution brought in transformation in the use of
farming machines, enlargement of farms , scientific methods of farming and scientific methods of processing foods
including preservation and refrigeration.</div>
<div class="bodytext1" style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>The Agrarian revolution in Britain was caused by the following factors:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
1. demand for food by the growing urban
population</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
2. demand for agricultural raw
materials for textile industry </div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
3. the invention of horse drawn seed
drill by Jethro Tull</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
4. land consolidation and enclosure
system </div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
5. selective bleeding of livestock
which led to increased animal products </div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
6. introduction of new farming tools</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
7. use of fertilizers and crop rotation
in farming </div>
<div class="bodytext1" style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Effects of Agrarian revolution
in Britain </b></div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
1. Improved methods of farming led
to increased food production. It
promoted diversification of
agricultural crops like clover, potatoes, beans, maize and citrus fruits
enabling better variety of produce.</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
2. It promoted industrialization as it
provided the required raw materials to the industries. Machines were used to
process agricultural produce.</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
3. It led to improvement of transport
system, for example, road networks and railways.</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
4. Better transportation promoted both local and international trade.
It resulted in the
emergence of a class of rich people in the society.</div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
5. Mechanization of farming led to
unemployment. As a result, jobless people moved to towns to get jobs.
Establishment of large scale farming to replace subsistence farming
created a class of landless people as some became farm laborers while others
moved to towns and mines to look for employment. It resulted to the
landless peasants migrating to other parts of the world eg Canada, South
Africa, Australia and New Zealand. </div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
6. The price of land in Britain increased considerably.
There was improvement in standards of living yet unemployment was common.
Population increased considerably. </div>
<div class="md-content-block" style="line-height: 115%;">
7. Agrarian revolution
enhanced research and scientific innovations to cater for the increased needs
of farmers. Jethro Tull and Arthur Young contributed significantly with their
inventions to the Agrarian movement, which, was an essential prelude to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution">Industrial
Revolution</a>. </div>
<div class="list1" style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The industrial revolution was the
totality of the changes in economic and social organization that began in Great
Britain in 1750's. It was characterized chiefly by the replacement of hand
tools with power-driven machines, such as, the low power loom and the steam
engine, and by the concentration of industry in large establishments.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cause
of the Industrial Revolution:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
1. People were in need for food and goods, they had to find ways to increase
productions <br />
<br />
2. New machines were invented that changed way of production in farms.<br />
<br />
3. Europeans set up more colonies over seas. The colonies were the primary
source for raw material and the primary market for the finished produce.<br />
<br />
4. Feudalism ended and capital accumulated from trade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
At the dawn of the eighteenth century, farming was
the primary livelihood in England, with at least 75% of the population making
its living off the land. (<a href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/bibliography.html#kreis" target="_new">Kreis</a>)
This meant that many English families had very little to do during the winter
months except sit around and make careful use of the food and other supplies
that they stored up during the rest of the year. If the harvest had been
smaller than usual or if any other unexpected losses had come about, the winter
could be a very long, cold, and hungry one. The cottage industry was developed
to take advantage of the farmers' free time and use it to produce quality
textiles for a reasonable price. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
To begin the process, a cloth merchant from the
city would travel to the countryside and
purchase a load of wool from a sheep farm. He would then distribute the raw
materials among several farming households to be made into cloth (<a href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/bibliography.html#cottage" target="_new">Cottage Industry</a>). The preparation of the wool was a task in
which the whole family took part. Women and girls first washed the wool to
remove the dirt and natural oils and then dyed it as desired. They also carded
the wool, which meant combing it between two pads of nails until the fibres
were all pointed in the same direction. Next, the wool was spun into thread
using a spinning wheel and wound onto a bobbin (this was often the job of an
unmarried daughter; hence, the word "spinster" is still used today to
describe an unmarried woman). The actual weaving of the thread into cloth was
done using a loom operated by hand and foot; it was physically demanding work,
and was therefore the man's job. The task of transforming raw wool into cloth
could be done entirely by one household, or split between two or more (ie.
spinning in one home, weaving in another). The merchant would return at regular
intervals over the season to pick up the finished cloth, which he then brought
back to the city to sell or export, and to drop of a new load of wool to be
processed. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The cottage industry proved to be profitable for
the urban merchants, since they could sell the finished cloth for far more than
they paid the famers to make it. The cottage industry helped to prepare the
country for the Industrial Revolution by boosting the English economy through
the increase of trade that occurred as the country became well-known overseas
for its high-quality and low-cost exports. Previously, tradesmen had done all
the manufacturing themselves, so the idea of subcontracting was new and
appealing. The cottage industry was also a good source of auxiliary funds for
the rural people. However, many farming families came to depend on the
enterprise; thus, when industrialization and the Agricultural Revolution reduced
the need for farm workers, many were forced to leave their homes and move to
the city. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The industrial revolution began in
Great Britain because of the textile industry , they had a abundance of cotton
used in the making of the textiles . New machines were invented because of
manufacturing of clothing at home.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Spinning Jenny invented by James
Hargreaves in 1764<br />
allowed one person to spin many threads at once, increasing the amount of
finished cotton a worker could produce. Even though thread was coarse and
usually lacked strength, you could spin about 80 threads at once. Steam engine originally invented by Thomas
Newcomen, and improved upon by James
Watt used steam for power. This was
applied to ships and railways, <br />
used in mining, to pump water out. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Why was Britain First?<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Why was Britain the first country to industrialize?
This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because conditions
were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution. Having used wood for
heat instead of coal, Britain was left with large deposits of coal remaining to
fuel the new ideas. Any raw supplies Britain itself did not have could be
provided by its many colonies. These colonies also provided captive markets for
the abundance of new goods provided by the industrial revolution. The product
was cotton. Cotton was a simple, cheap, and easily made product that everyone
could use. So, between 1796 and 1830 cotton production tripled. The new
production was easily transported, because there remained an old commercial
fleet. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The Product and Market were the simple
requirements, and many countries had them. What set Britain apart from the
others, however, were three unique social elements: education,
"modern" work attitudes, and a "modern" government. Great
Britain had a larger educated workforce to run the machines and create manuals.
The Enlightenment not only meant a larger educated population but also more
modern views on work. The population in Great Britain was ready to move out of
the country and to the city to work. Britain also had the large middle class
and flexible mercantile class necessary. English society, unlike many others,
was not opposed to "new money," and as such was eager to accept the
new wealthy and their new ideas. Lastly, Britain's government, a long-time constitutional
monarchy, was just right for the situation. The government was flexible enough
to support the new system and to a certain degree accepted Adam Smith's
capitalistic "invisible hand." The Dutch were the forerunners
financially, but with the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694, their
supremacy was challenged. The government and the bank provided incredible
backing to new ideas, which soon turned into new wealth. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Many of these elements were achieved because of the
insularity of England. This meant that the industrial development was rarely
interrupted by war. This combination of necessary elements led to the early
mechanization of Britain. Between 1838 and 1850 Britain's rail lines went from
540 to 6621 track kilometers; rail lines were considered the best way to
monitor a country's industrialization. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<br />
<b>Living Conditions of the working class</b><br />
<br />
The working class lived in small houses that shared toilet facilities. The
streets were usually unpaved, cramped and full of holes. The houses didn't have
gutters or drains so it resulted in sinking puddles. There was filthy animal
and vegetable refuse everywhere. Many of the British towns suffered from
outbreaks of Cholera because of these dirty, overcrowded and unsanitary living
conditions. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Many parents saw factory child labor as an
opportunity to rely on the incomes of their children that were employed for
extremely low wages, some as young as 5. These children worked in unsanitary
factories and were regularly exposed to harsh, toxic chemicals such as high
levels of phosphorous. This resulted in either rotting teeth or death. The
children that worked in cotton mills handled dangerous machines. Because the
children had to work such long long hours, some would fall into the machines
from being asleep. Others died from being crushed by the machines, injuries or
explosions</div>
<h3 style="line-height: 115%;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
6 Pros of The Industrial Revolution<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>1. </strong>As an effect of
industrialization, the well being of certain class of people increased. Britain
witnessed the rise of the nouveau riche Middle class . Wealth came to be
accumulated with few and the poor was further exploited. Nations started to
identify national pride and identities. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>2. </strong>Factories that produce
quality products increased rapidly. The production rate was multiplied because
of the innovation in machinery. As a result of the mass production of goods,
the price of products decreased resulting to enhanced quality living. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>3. </strong>The means of
transportation changed enormously. It became cheaper, faster and very
comfortable. Easier travel opened up new avenues to many people.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>5. </strong>The increase in
production was associated to the hike in trade. It produces new jobs and it
increases the employment rate.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>6. </strong>Cities grew and
offered a lot of work and opportunity.
This resulted in mass migration of working force from the rural country side to
the cities. The Industrial revolution was a time of rapid growth and change
throughout America and Europe. Innovations in machinery, methods, and
techniques of producing goods opened up an entirely new world. More goods where
able to be produced, and in a shorter amount of time. This is owed to
advancements in architecture, agriculture, transportation, and communication.
It provided a great amount of jobs for people, improving the quality of life,
but it also had it’s drawbacks. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The 6 Cons of Industrial Revolution</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>1. </strong>Working from other
factories is exhausting. It causes long working hours, it has bad working
conditions, and there are times that it causes illness and death. There are
cases that factory workers got caught by uncovered machinery resulting to
injury or death. The dust and fumes from chemical factories can also harm a
person’s health.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>2. </strong>Industrialization in
modern cities attracts immigrants. It promises a good life but not all were
lucky. It causes overcrowded cities and slum areas appeared.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>3. </strong>Industrialization
comes with pollution. Factories, automobiles and aircrafts produces unthinkable
air pollution to some advanced cities in the world. Chemicals and wastes that
were not properly disposed causes water and land pollution. The condition of
the environment is at stake because of the industrialization.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>4. </strong>Some machines took the
place of human labor resulting to high unemployment rate for those people who
lack competencies and skills. Because of this, those who cannot look for a
better job to earn for living were forced to commit crime just to support their
families.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>5. </strong>New lifestyle trend
means new invented products. Some of these are the main cause of lifestyle
diseases like diabetes, heart attack, cancer and a lot more.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>6. </strong>Another negative
result of industrialization is that it brought a negative impact on culture,
values and morality of mankind. Technology drives the shift in principles,
beliefs and faith.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Impact of
French Revolution in Britain<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The <a href="http://crossref-it.info/repository/atoz/French-Revolution">French
Revolution</a> and the fall of the <a href="http://crossref-it.info/repository/atoz/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</a>
in July 1789 had an enormous impact on British public opinion in England and
influenced the terms on which political debate would be conducted for the next
thirty years. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Throughout Britain the French Revolution was the
most important subject of debate in literary, philosophical and political
circles. Most of those who took an interest in what was happening across the
Channel responded in either a highly positive or a profoundly negative fashion.
This increasingly sharp division of opinion provided a major stimulus to
extra-parliamentary reformers while also encouraging the growth of popular
loyalism, and re-shaped the political fortunes of the two major groups in
parliament, led by William Pitt the Younger and Charles James Fox respectively.
British opinion thus became polarized between those who thought French principles
and actions should set an example to the British people and those who believed
that they should oppose everything the French Revolution was seeking to
achieve.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The dramatic first months of the French Revolution
inspired a positive reaction among men of liberal views both inside and outside
parliament. To such men as Charles James Fox, Richard Price and Robert Southey
the old world seemed to be passing a way and the regeneration of all human
institutions seemed to be at hand. France was seen to be throwing off the
shackles of tyranny and leading mankind to a more rational age when liberty,
equality and fraternity would improve the human condition forever. Many veteran
reformers, who had been campaigning for political change since the 1760s,
hailed the outbreak of revolution in a country long regarded as the prime
example of absolute monarchy and were galvanized into a renewed debate on what
reforms needed to be achieved. By the early 1790s, inspired by French notions
on the rights of man, most British campaigners for parliamentary reform had
adopted the demand for universal manhood suffrage and for a full
democratization of the electoral system. There was widespread agreement that
the right to vote should be attached to the person and not to the property of
man. To deny any man the franchise was to cast a slur on his moral character
and to assert that he was less than a man. The possession of wealth was no
proof of moral worth or civic virtue, and nor was poverty any evidence of the
lack of these qualities.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
In the past many British reformers had maintained
that their demand for an extension of the franchise was based on a traditional
right based on England’s ancient constitution. Many of the leading radical
theorists of the early 1790s however abandoned an appeal to history and
stressed instead the natural and inalienable rights of all men. Thomas Paine,
for example, deliberately abandoned any appeal to the past and insisted that
each age had the right to establish any political system which would fit its own
needs. The present age must be free to reject the tyranny of the past and to
inaugurate a new age of liberty. All men must be allowed their natural and
inalienable rights to life, liberty, property and the pursuit of happiness. The
authority of those in power must be limited and must be subject to the
sovereignty of the people. A written constitution must place limits on the
executive and the legislature, and must clearly set out the civil rights of all
subjects. Thomas Paine would have gone further than most parliamentary
reformers to democratize the elections to the House of Commons. He condemned
all hereditary honours, titles and privileges. He saw no justification for a
monarchy or an aristocracy and clearly favoured a democratic republic. Few
other British reformers wanted to go as far as this and only a handful (and
Paine was not among them) campaigned for votes for women. On the other hand, a
few reformers had become interested in a range of social and economic reforms.
Quite a number of reformers favoured educational reforms, changes in the legal
system, the abolition of church tithes and the repeal of the game laws. Paine
argued for a reduction in taxes on the poor and for a property tax on the rich
which would fund such social welfare reforms as child allowances, maternity
grants and old age pensions. Thomas Spence went further still and wanted to
abolish private property and to put all land and natural resources in each
parish under the control of and for the benefit of every man, woman and child living
in it.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The consequences for the political and propertied
elite of reforms such as these, and the alarming example set by the French
revolutionaries who used violence and terror to achieve the changes which they
desired, stimulated a profound conservative reaction in Britain. Conservative
theorists such as Edmund Burke denounced the radical concept of natural rights,
all abstract general principles and reforms based on speculative theories as
the sure and certain road to political upheaval and social anarchy. They
insisted that human beings were so unequal in body, mind, talents and fortune
that they could not lay claim to an equal share of political power.
Conservative propaganda aimed at a mass readership used more pragmatic
arguments than these and adopted simple, direct language and a more impassioned
tone. This propaganda sought to convince the middling and lower orders of
Britain that French principles and the ideas of British radicals posed a
terrible threat to everything that they held most dear. British subjects were
warned that they had nothing to gain and everything to lose if they were
seduced by radical principles. The French revolutionaries were condemned for
rejecting Gods laws and arrogantly putting their trust in human reason. Whereas
the British people were secure in their lives, liberty, property and religion,
the French were experiencing terror, social anarchy and military dictatorship.
This virulent propaganda set out to paint the French in the blackest colours
and to accuse them of spreading terror, oppression and desolation across
Europe. To restrain them, the British people must be prepared to make enormous
sacrifices and to wage a veritable crusade against the French Revolution. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
In the closing years of the 18th century, social
and political unrest in Britain was growing rapidly. It was a time of argument
and counter-argument centred on one issue: the rights of man. On one side were
the radicals who backed a revolutionary new idea: democracy. On the other were
the loyalists who strongly opposed any social reform, believing that it would
bring the ancient British 'constitution' into danger. Loyalists saw citizenship
in terms of 'traditional' British values - property, social order, the Church
and the monarchy. They believed that the long-established British political
system was the wisest and most reliable form of government. The radicals, by
contrast, thought that citizenship came from universal 'natural rights'. This
meant that all men (though not necessarily all women) had a right to take part
in politics, whatever their social class, political background or religious
beliefs. When the radical writer Thomas Paine published his book <em>Rights of
Man</em>, in 1791-2, it caused a sensation. A powerful and eloquent defence of
the French Revolution, it praised the downfall of the French ruling classes and
urged the establishment of a democracy and the acceptance of the 'universal
right of citizenship'. Paine's book questioned the traditional values of
Britain and his message was clear: people didn't have to accept the way things
were. He urged people to rise up and rebel against what he believed were
generations of oppression. This kind of thinking was totally new for many
people across the country and, perhaps for the first time, they questioned their
place in society. Paine had written his book to rebut <em>Reflections on the
Revolution in France</em> (1790) by the influential <a href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/glossary.htm#whigs">Whig<span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75"
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politician Edmund Burke. Burke had argued that ideas such as democracy and the
'rights of man' attacked the very beliefs upon which Britain's 'constitution'
was based. Soon people began to form political societies based on Paine's
ideas, and many openly advocated revolution. By the mid 1790s there were at
least 80 of these groups in England. However, not all of them called for total
change. The London Corresponding Society, for example, founded in January 1792,
campaigned for parliamentary reform, rather than for a democratic republic and
the end of the existing political system.</div>
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">French Revolution and
English Society</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The French Revolution played a huge role in
influencing Romantic writers. As the Revolution began to play out, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute
monarchy</a> that had ruled <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> for centuries collapsed in only three years. This
resulted in a complete transformation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>. A
majority of the population was greatly in favor of this as the working class
had been suffering <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a> for many years. According to Albert Hancock, in
his book <i>The French Revolution and the English Poets: a study in historical
criticism</i>, “The French Revolution came, bringing with it the promise of a
brighter day, the promise of regenerated man and regenerated earth. It was
hailed with joy and acclamation by the oppressed, by the ardent lovers of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human" title="Human">humanity</a>, by the
poets, whose task it is to voice the human spirit.”<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution#cite_note-hancock-2"></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
A common theme among some of the most widely known
romantic poets is their acceptance and approval of the French Revolution. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a>,
and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Shelley" title="Percy Shelley">Percy
Shelley</a> all shared the same view of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French
Revolution</a> as it being the beginning of a change in the current ways of
society and helping to improve the lives of the oppressed. As the French
Revolution changed the lives of virtually everyone in the nation and even
continent because of its drastic and immediate shift in social reformation, it
greatly influenced many writers at the time. Hancock writes, “There is no need
to recount here in detail how the French Revolution, at the close of the last
century, was the great stimulus to the intellectual and emotional life of the
civilized world, how it began by inspiring all liberty-loving men with hope and
joy.” </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Literature began to take a new turn when the spirit
of the revolution caught the entire nation and turned things in a whole new direction.
The newly acquired freedom of the common people did not only bring about just
laws and living but ordinary people also had the freedom to think for
themselves, and in turn the freedom to express themselves. Triggered by the
revolutionary spirit, the writers of the time were full of creative ideas and
were waiting for a chance to unleash them. Under the new laws writers and
artists were given a considerable amount of freedom to express themselves which
did well to pave the way to set a high standard for literature.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution#cite_note-gregory-3"></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Prior to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French
Revolution</a>, poems and literature were typically written about and to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy_%28class%29" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocrats</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, and rarely
for or about the working man. However, when the roles of society began to shift
resulting from the French Revolution, and with the emergence of Romantic
writers, this changed. Romantic poets such as Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, and
Shelley started to write works for and about the working man; pieces that the
common man could relate to. According to Christensen, “To get the real
animating principle of the Romantic Movement, one must not study it inductively
or abstractly; one must look at it historically. It must be put beside the
literary standards of the eighteenth century. These standards impose limits
upon the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysium" title="Elysium">Elysian
fields</a> of poetry; poetry must be confined to the common experience of
average men… The Romantic Movement then means the revolt of a group of
contemporary poets who wrote, not according to common and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrinaire" title="Doctrinaire">doctrinaire</a>
standards, but as they individually pleased… there are no principles
comprehensive and common to all except those of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>
and revolt.</div>
<div class="lq" style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>The
Reform Bills<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="lq" style="line-height: 115%;">
No period of British History has been as
tense, as politically and socially disturbed, as the 1830s and early 1840s,
when both the working class and the middle class, separately or in conjunction,
demanded what they regarded as fundamental changes. From 1829 to 1832 their
discontents fused in the demand for Parliamentary Reform, behind which the
massses threw their riots and demonstrations, the businessmen the power of
economic boycott. After the 1832, when several of the demands of the
middle-class radicals were met, the worker's movement fought and failed alone.
— Eric Hobsbawm, <span class="lqbook">Industry and Empire</span>, p. 55.</div>
<div class="one" style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>The</b> <b>three
Reform Acts, of 1832, 1867, and 1884</b>, all extended voting rights to
previously disfranchised citizens. The first act, which was the most
controversial, reapportioned representation in Parliament in a way fairer to
the cities of the industrial north, which had experienced tremendous growth,
and did away with "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs like Old
Sarum, which with only seven voters (all controlled by the local squire) was
still sending two members to Parliament. This act not only re-apportioned
representation in Parliament, thus making that body more accurately represent
the citizens of the country, but also gave the power of voting to those lower
in the social and economic scale. Approximately one man in five now had the
right to vote. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
For many conservatives, this effect of the bill,
which allowed the middle classes to share power with the upper classes, was
revolutionary in its import. Some historians argue that this transference of
power achieved in England what the <a href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/hist7.html">French Revolution</a>
achieved eventually in France. Therefore, the agitation preceding (and
following) the first Reform Act, which <a href="http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/index.html">Dickens</a>
observed at first hand as a shorthand Parliamentary reporter, made many
people consider fundamental issues of society and politics.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="ma"><strong>The 1867 Reform Act</strong>
</a>extended the right to vote still further down the class ladder, adding just
short of a million voters — including many workingmen — and doubling the
electorate, to almost two million in England and Wales. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The 1867 act created major shock waves in
contemporary British culture, some of which appear in works such as Arnold's <span class="book">Culture and Anarchy</span> and <a href="http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/ruskin/index.html">Ruskin</a>'s <span class="book">Crown of Wild Olive</span>, as authors debated whether this shift of
power would create democracy that would, in turn, destroy high culture.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<strong>The 1884 bill</strong> and the <strong>1885
Redistribution Act</strong> tripled the electorate again, giving the
vote to most agricultural laborers. By this time, voting was becoming a
right rather than the property of the privileged. However, women were not
granted voting rights until the <strong>Act of 1918</strong>,
which enfranchised all men over 21 and women over thirty. This last bit of
discrimination was eliminated 10 years later (in <strong>1928</strong>)
by the <strong>Equal Franchise Act</strong>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<b>Industrialization
and need for mass education<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
In 1751 the population of the British mainland
stood at seven million. By 1821 - after seventy years of industrial revolution
- it had reached fourteen million, and by 1871 it would reach twenty-six
million. The rapid expansion in the overall population was matched by increases
in the proportion of people who lived in towns and cities, and in the
proportion of the population who were children. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
England's industrial revolution began in the second
half of the 18th century. At first, new agricultural techniques freed workers
from the land and made it possible to feed a large non-agricultural population.
</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
In the 19th century, relative world peace, the
availability of money, coal and iron ore, and the invention of the steam
engine, all combined to facilitate the construction of factories for the mass
production of goods. The factory system increased the division and
specialisation of labour and resulted in large numbers of people moving to the
new industrial cities, especially in the midlands and the north. It also
resulted in low wages, slum housing and the use of child labour. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Thus the industrial revolution exacerbated the
problems of a society 'divided into those with land or capital or profession
and those with no wealth, no possessions and no privileges' (Benn and Chitty
1996:2). </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Perhaps the first sign that the state was beginning
to acknowledge some responsibility for the conditions in which the poor - and
particularly poor children - lived, was Peel's Factory Act of 1802: 'An Act for
the preservation of the health and morals of apprentices and others employed in
cotton and other mills and cotton and other factories'. The Act required an
employer to provide instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic during at
least the first four years of the seven years of apprenticeship. Such secular
instruction was to be part of the twelve hours of daily occupation beginning
not earlier than 6am and ending not later than 9pm. Many of the apprentices
were young pauper children who were frequently brought from distant workhouses
to labour in the cotton mills. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Alongside the upheaval of industrialization, the
process of democratization got under way with the Representation of the People
Act 1832 (commonly known as the Reform Act), which gave a million people the
right to vote. </div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="01">This dramatic social, political and
economic transformation served to reveal the utter inadequacy of England's
educational provision. A number of reports highlighted the deficiencies and
called for more and better schools. One such report looked at 12,000 parishes
in 1816, and found that 3,500 had no school, 3,000 had endowed schools of
varying quality, and 5,500 had un endowed schools of even more variable
quality. </a>But changes began to be made, led by head masters like Samuel
Butler at Shrewsbury from 1798 to 1836 and Thomas Arnold at Rugby from 1828 to
1841.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
2: Prose<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">V. Dream-Children</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
A Revery<br />
<b>By Charles Lamb</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CHILDREN love to listen to
stories about their elders, when <i>they</i> were children; to
stretch their imagination to the conception of a traditionary great-uncle or
grandame, whom they never saw. It was in this spirit that my little ones
crept about me the other evening to hear about their great-grandmother Field,
who lived in a great house in Norfolk (a hundred times bigger than that in
which they and papa lived) which had been the scene—so at least it was
generally believed in that part of the country—of the tragic incidents which
they had lately become familiar with from the ballad of the Children in the
Wood. Certain it is that the whole story of the children and their cruel
uncle was to be seen fairly carved out in wood upon the chimney-piece of the
great hall, the whole story down to the Robin Redbreasts, till a foolish
rich person pulled it down to set up a marble one of modern invention in its
stead, with no story upon it. Here Alice put out one of her dear mother’s
looks, too tender to be called upbraiding. Then I went on to say, how
religious and how good their great-grandmother Field was, how beloved and
respected by everybody, though she was not indeed the mistress of this great
house, but had only the charge of it (and yet in some respects she might be
said to be the mistress of it too) committed to her by the owner, who
preferred living in a newer and more fashionable mansion which he had
purchased somewhere in the adjoining county; but still she lived in it in a
manner as if it had been her own, and kept up the dignity of the great house
in a sort while she lived, which afterward came to decay, and was nearly
pulled down, and all its old ornaments stripped and carried away to the
owner’s other house, where they were set up, and looked as awkward as if some
one were to carry away the old tombs they had seen lately at the Abbey, and
stick them up in Lady C.’s tawdry gilt drawing-room. Here John smiled, as
much as to say, “that would be foolish indeed.” And then I told how, when she
came to die, her funeral was attended by a concourse of all the poor, and
some of the gentry too, of the neighborhood for many miles round, to show
their respect for her memory, because she had been such a good and religious
woman; so good indeed that she knew all the Psaltery by heart, aye, and a
great part of the Testament besides. Here little Alice spread her hands. Then
I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their great-grandmother Field
once was; and how in her youth she was esteemed the best dancer—here
Alice’s little right foot played an involuntary movement, till upon my looking
grave, it desisted—the best dancer, I was saying, in the county, till a cruel
disease, called a cancer, came, and bowed her down with pain; but it could
never bend her good spirits, or make them stoop, but they were still upright,
because she was so good and religious. Then I told how she was used to sleep
by herself in a lone chamber of the great lone house; and how she believed
that an apparition of two infants was to be seen at midnight gliding up and
down the great staircase near where she slept, but she said “those innocents
would do her no harm”; and how frightened I used to be, though in those days
I had my maid to sleep with me, because I was never half so good or religious
as she—and yet I never saw the infants. Here John expanded all his eyebrows and
tried to look courageous. Then I told how good she was to all her
grand-children, having us to the great house in the holidays, where I in
particular used to spend many hours by myself, in gazing upon the old busts
of the Twelve Cæsars, that had been Emperors of Rome, till the old marble
heads would seem to live again, or I to be turned into marble with them; how
I never could be tired with roaming about that huge mansion, with its vast
empty rooms, with their worn-out hangings, fluttering tapestry, and carved
oaken panels, with the gilding almost rubbed out—sometimes in the spacious
old-fashioned gardens, which I had almost to myself, unless when now and then
a solitary gardening man would cross me—and how the nectarines and peaches
hung upon the walls, without my ever offering to pluck them, because they
were forbidden fruit, unless now and then,—and because I had more pleasure in
strolling about among the old melancholy-looking yew trees, or the firs, and
picking up the red berries, and the fir apples, which were good for nothing
but to look at—or in lying about upon the fresh grass, with all the fine
garden smells around me—or basking in the orangery, till I could almost fancy
myself ripening, too, along with the oranges and the limes in that grateful warmth—or
in watching the dace that darted to and fro in the fish pond, at the bottom
of the garden, with here and there a great sulky pike hanging midway down the
water in silent state, as if it mocked at their impertinent friskings,—I had
more pleasure in these busy-idle diversions than in all the sweet flavors of
peaches, nectarines, oranges, and such like common baits of children. Here
John slyly deposited back upon the plate a bunch of grapes, which, not
unobserved by Alice, he had mediated dividing with her, and both seemed
willing to relinquish them for the present as irrelevant. Then, in somewhat a
more heightened tone, I told how, though their great-grandmother Field loved
all her grand-children, yet in an especial manner she might be said to love their
uncle, John L——, because he was so handsome and spirited a youth, and a king
to the rest of us; and, instead of moping about in solitary corners, like
some of us, he would mount the most mettlesome horse he could get, when but
an imp no bigger than themselves, and make it carry him half over the county
in a morning, and join the hunters when there were any out—and yet he loved
the old great house and gardens too, but had too much spirit to be always
pent up within their boundaries —and how their uncle grew up to man’s
estate as brave as he was handsome, to the admiration of everybody, but of
their great-grandmother Field most especially; and how he used to carry me
upon his back when I was a lame-footed boy—for he was a good bit older than
me—many a mile when I could not walk for pain;—and how in after life he
became lame-footed too, and I did not always (I fear) make allowances enough
for him when he was impatient, and in pain, nor remember sufficiently how
considerate he had been to me when I was lame-footed; and how when he died,
though he had not been dead an hour, it seemed as if he had died a great
while ago, such a distance there is betwixt life and death; and how I bore
his death as I thought pretty well at first, but afterward it haunted and haunted
me; and though I did not cry or take it to heart as some do, and as I think
he would have done if I had died, yet I missed him all day long, and knew not
till then how much I had loved him. I missed his kindness, and I missed his
crossness, and wished him to be alive again, to be quarreling with him (for
we quarreled sometimes), rather than not have him again, and was as uneasy
without him, as he their poor uncle must have been when the doctor took off
his limb. Here the children fell a crying, and asked if their little mourning
which they had on was not for uncle John, and they looked up and prayed me
not to go on about their uncle, but to tell them some stories about their
pretty, dead mother. Then I told them how for seven long years, in hope
sometimes, sometimes in despair, yet persisting ever, I courted the fair
Alice W——n; and, as much as children could understand, I explained to them
what coyness, and difficulty, and denial meant in maidens—when suddenly,
turning to Alice, the soul of the first Alice looked out at her eyes with
such a reality of re-presentment, that I became in doubt which of them stood
there before me, or whose that bright hair was; and while I stood gazing,
both the children gradually grew fainter to my view, receding, and still receding
till nothing at last but two mournful features were seen in the uttermost
distance, which, without speech, strangely impressed upon me the effects of
speech: “We are not of Alice, nor of thee, nor are we children at all. The
children of Alice call Bartrum father. We are nothing; less than nothing, and
dreams. We are only what might have been, and must wait upon the tedious
shores of Lethe millions of ages before we have existence, and a name”—and
immediately awaking, I found myself quietly seated in my bachelor armchair,
where I had fallen asleep, with the faithful Bridget unchanged by my side—but
John L. (or James Elia) was gone forever.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="1"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">AUTHOR NOTE</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LAMB is the heir of the
eighteenth-century essayists, but with a richer imagination and a more
delicate sensibility. He is an essayist rather than a story-teller,—an
essayist of an intense individuality. But he could dream dreams as the other
poets have done; and here is one of them, contained in the “Essays of Elia,”
published in 1822.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">STORY NOTE</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This is hardly a story at all; it
is so slight in substance and in texture; it is a revery only. Yet it has its
movement and its climax; it makes only a single impression; and thus it is
seen to have certain of the essential qualities of the true short-story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"On
Going a Journey" <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">William
Hazlitt<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One of the pleasantest things in the world is going a journey; but I like
to do it myself. I can enjoy society in a room; but out of doors, nature is
company for me. I am then never less alone than when alone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"The fields his study, nature
was his book."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I cannot see the wit of walking
and talking at the same time. When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like
the country. I am not for criticizing hedge-rows and black cattle. I go out of
town in order to forget the town and all that is in it. There are those who for
this purpose go to watering-places and carry the metropolis with them. I like
more elbow-room and fewer incumbrances. I like solitude, when I give myself up
to it, for the sake of solitude; nor do I ask for<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"a friend in my retreat<br />
Whom I may whisper, solitude is sweet."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The soul of a journey is liberty,
perfect liberty, to think, feel, do just as one pleases. We go a journey
chiefly to be free of all impediments and of all inconveniences; to leave
ourselves behind, much more to get rid of others. It is because I want a little
breathing-space to muse on indifferent matters, where Contemplation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"May plume her feathers and
let grow her wings,<br />
That in the various bustle of resort<br />
Were all too ruffled, and sometimes impair'd,"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">that I absent myself from the town
for awhile, without feeling at a loss the moment I am left by myself. Instead
of a friend in a post-chaise or in a Tilbury, to exchange good things with and
vary the same stale topics over again, for once let me have a truce with
impertinence. Give me the clear blue sky over my head, and the green turf
beneath my feet, a winding road before me, and a three hours' march to dinner
-- and then to thinking! It is hard if I cannot start some game on these lone
heaths. I laugh, I run, I leap, I sing for joy. From the point of yonder
rolling cloud, I plunge into my past being and revel there, as the sunburnt
Indian plunges headlong into the wave that wafts him to his native shore. Then
long-forgotten things like "sunken wrack and sumless treasuries,"
burst upon my eager sight, and I begin to feel, think, and be myself again.
Instead of an awkward silence, broken by attempts at wit or dull common-places,
mine is that undisturbed silence of the heart which alone is perfect eloquence.
No one likes puns, alliterations, antitheses, argument, and analysis better
than I do; but I sometimes had rather be without them. "Leave, oh, leave
me to my repose!" I have just now other business in hand which would seem
idle to you, but is with me "very stuff of the conscience." Is not
this wild rose sweet without a comment? Does not this daisy leap to my heart
set in its coat of emerald? Yet if I were to explain to you the circumstance
that has so endeared it to me, you would only smile. Had I not better then keep
it to myself, and let it serve me to brood over, from hear to yonder craggy
point, and from thence onward to the far-distant horizon? I should be but bad
company all that way, and therefore prefer being alone. I have heard it said
that you may, when the moody fit comes on, walk or ride on by yourself and
indulge your reveries. But this looks like a breach of manners, a neglect of
others, and you are thinking all the time that you ought to rejoin your party.
"Out upon such half-faced fellowship," say I. I like to be either
entirely to myself, or entirely at the disposal of others; to talk or be
silent, to walk or sit still, to be sociable or solitary. I was pleased with an
observation of </span><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Reformers/Cobbett.htm"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Mr Cobbett's</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">that
"he thought it a bad French custom to drink our wine with our meals, and
that an Englishman ought to do only one thing at a time." So I cannot talk
and think, or indulge in melancholy musing and lively conversation by fits and
starts. "Let me have a companion of my way," says Sterne, "were
it but to remark how the shadows lengthen as the sun declines." It is
beautifully said; but in my opinion, this continual comparing of notes
interferes with the involuntary impression of things upon the mind and hurts
the sentiment. If you only hint what you feel in a kind of dumb show, it is
insipid; if you have to explain it, it is making a toil of a pleasure. You
cannot read the book of nature without being perpetually put to the trouble of
translating it for the benefit of others. I am for the synthetical method on a
journey, in preference to the analytical. I am content to lay in a stock of
ideas then, and to examine and anatomize them afterwards. I want to see my
vague notions float like the down of the thistle before the breeze, and not to
have them entangled in the briars and thorns of controversy. For once, I like
to have it all my own way; and this is impossible unless you are alone, or in
such company as I do not covet. I have no objection to argue a point with
anyone for twenty miles of measured road, but not for pleasure. If you remark
the scent of a bean-field crossing the road, perhaps your fellow-traveller has
no smell. If you point to a distant object, perhaps he is short-sighted, and
has to take out his glass to look at it. There is a feeling in the air, a tone
in the colour of a cloud which hits your fancy, but the effect of which you are
unable to account for. There is then no sympathy, but an uneasy craving after
it, and a dissatisfaction which pursues you on the way, and in the end probably
produces ill humour. Now I never quarrel with myself, and take all my own
conclusions for granted till I find it necessary to defend them against
objections. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="rfn2">It is not merely that you may not be of accord on
the objects and circumstances that present themselves before you -- these may
recall a number of objects and lead to associations too delicate and refined to
be possibly communicated to others. Yet these I love to cherish, and sometimes
still fondly clutch them, when I can escape from the throng to do so. To give
way to our feelings before company, seems extravagance or affectation; and, on
the other hand, to have to unravel this mystery of our being at every turn, and
to make others take an equal interest in it (otherwise the end is not answered)
is a task to which few are competent. We must "give it an understanding
but no tongue." My old friend ... [</a><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Literary/Coleridge.htm"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Coleridge</span></a>],
however, could do both. He could go on in the most delightful explanatory way
over hill and dale a summer's day, and convert a landscape into a didactic poem
or a Pindaric ode. "He talked far above singing." If I could so
clothe my ideas in sounding and flowing words, I might perhaps wish to have
some one with me to admire the swelling theme; or I could be more content, were
is possible for me still to hear his echoing voice in the woods of All-Foxden.</span><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#fn2"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">2</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> They
had "that fine madness in them which our first poets had"; and if
they could have been caught by some rare instrument, would have breathed such
strains as the following.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"Here be woods as green<br />
As any, air likewise as fresh and sweet<br />
As then smooth Zephyrus plays on the fleet<br />
Face of the curled streams, with flow'rs as many<br />
As the young spring gives, and as choice as any;<br />
Here be all new delights, cool streams and wells,<br />
Arbours o'ergrown with woodbine, caves and dells;<br />
Choose where thou wilt; whilst I sit by and sing.<br />
Or gather rushes, to make many a ring<br />
For thy long fingers; tell thee tales of love;<br />
How the pale Phoebe, hunting in a grove,<br />
First saw the boy Endymion, from whose eyes<br />
She took eternal fire that never dies;<br />
How she convey'd him softly in a sleep,<br />
His temples bound with poppy, to the steep<br />
Head of old Latmos, where she stoops each night,<br />
Gilding the mountain with her brother's light,<br />
Too kiss her sweetest."<br />
</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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Faithful Shepherdess.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Had I words and images at command
like these, I would attempt to wake the thoughts that lie slumbering on golden
ridges in the evening clouds; but at the sight of nature my fancy, poor as it
is, droops and closes up its leaves, like flowers at sunset. I can make nothing
out on the spot:--I must have time to collect myself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In general, a good thing spoils out-of-door prospects; it should be
reserved for table-talk. ... [</span><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Literary/BiosEssayists.htm#Lamb"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Lamb</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">] is for
this reason, I take it, the worst company in the world out of doors; because he
is the best within. I grant, there is one subject on which it is pleasant to
talk on a journey; and that is, what one shall have for supper when we get to
our inn at night. The open air improves this sort of conversation or friendly
altercation by setting a keener edge on appetite. Every mile of the road
heightens the flavour of the viands we expect at the end of it. How fine is it
to enter some old town, walled and turreted, just at approach of nightfall, or
to come to some straggling village, with the lights streaming through the
surrounding gloom; and then after inquiring for the best entertainment that the
place affords, to "take one's ease at one's inn!" These eventful
moments in our lives' history are too precious, too full of solid, heart-felt
happiness to be frittered and dribbled away in imperfect sympathy. I would have
them all to myself, and drain them to the last drop; they will do to talk of or
to write about afterwards. What a delicate speculation it is, after drinking
whole goblets of tea,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"The cups that cheer, but not
inebriate,"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="rfn4"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="rfn3"></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And letting the fumes ascend into the brain, to sit
considering what we shall have for supper -- eggs and a rasher, a rabbit
smothered in onions, or an excellent veal-cutlet! Sancho in such a situation
once fixed upon cow-heel; and his choice, though he could not help it, is not
to be disparaged. Then, in the intervals of pictured scenery and Shandean
contemplation, to catch the preparation and the stir in the kitchen [getting
ready for the gentleman in the parlour]</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#fn3"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">3</span></a> <i>Procul,
O procul este profani</i>! These hours are sacred to silence and to musing, to
be treasured up in the memory, and to feed the source of smiling thoughts
hereafter. I would not waste them in idle talk; or if I must have the integrity
of fancy broken in upon, I would rather it were by a stranger than a friend. A
stranger takes his hue and character from the time and place; he is a part of
the furniture and costume of an inn. If he is a Quaker, or from the West Riding
of Yorkshire, so much the better. I do not even try to sympathize with him, and
he breaks no squares. [How I love to see the camps of the gypsies, and to sigh
my soul into that sort of life. If I express this feeling to another, he may
qualify and spoil it with some objection.]</span><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#fn4"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">4</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> I
associate nothing with my travelling companion but present objects and passing
events. In his ignorance of me and my affairs, I in a manner forget myself. But
a friend reminds one of other things, rips up old grievances, and destroys the
abstraction of the scene. He comes in ungraciously between us and our imaginary
character. Something is dropped in the course of conversation that gives a hint
of your profession and pursuits; or from having some one with you that knows
the less sublime portions of your history, it seems that other people do. You
are no longer a citizen of the world: but your "unhoused free condition is
put into circumspection and confine." The incognito of an inn is one of
its striking privileges -- "Lord of one's self, uncumber'd with a
name." Oh! It is great to shake off the trammels of the world and of
public opinion -- to lose our importunate, tormenting, everlasting personal
identity in the elements of nature, and become the creature of the moment,
clear of all ties -- to hold to the universe only by a dish of sweet-breads,
and to owe nothing but the score of the evening -- and no longer seeking for
the applause and meeting with contempt, to be known by no other title than the
Gentleman in the parlour! One may take one's choice of all characters in this
romantic state of uncertainly as to one's real pretensions, and become
indefinitely respectable and negatively right-worshipful. We baffle prejudice
and disappoint conjecture; and from being so to others, begin to be objects of
curiosity and wonder even to ourselves. We are no more those hackneyed
common-places that we appear in the world; an inn restores us to the level of
nature and quits scores with society! I have certainly spent some enviable
hours at inns -- sometimes when I have been left entirely to myself and have
tired to solve some metaphysical problem, as once at Witham-common, where I
found out the proof that likenesss is not a case of the association of ideas --
at other times, when there have been pictures in the room, as at St Neot's (I
think I was), where I first met with Gribelin's engravings of the Cartoons,
into which I entered at once, and at a little inn on the borders of Wales,
where there happened to be hanging some of Westall's drawings, which I compared
triumphantly (for a theory that I had, not for the admired artist) with the
figure of a girl who had ferried me over the Severn, standing up in a boat
between me and the twilight -- at other times I might mention luxuriating in
books, with a peculiar interest in this way, as I remember sitting up half the
night to read Paul and Virgiria , which I picked up at an inn at Bridgewater,
after being drenched in the rain all day; and at the same place I got through
two volumes of Madam D'Arblay's Camilla . It was on the 10th of April, 1798,
that I sat down to a volume of the <i>New Eloise</i>, at the inn at
Llangollen, over a bottle of sherry and cold chicken. The letter I chose was
that in which St. Preux describes his feelings as he first caught a glimpse
from the heights of the Jura of the Pays de Vaud, which I had brought with me
as a <i>bon bouche</i> to crown the evening with. It was my
birth-day, and I had for the first time comer from a place in the neighbourhood
to visit this delightful spot. The road to Llangollen turns off between Chirk
and Wrexham; and on passing a certain point you come all at once upon the
valley, which opens like an amphitheatre, broad, barren hills rising in majestic
state on either side, with "green upland swells that echo to the bleat of
flocks" below, and the river Dee babbling over its stony bed in the midst
of them. The valley at this time "glittered green with sunny
showers," and a budding ash-tree dipped its tender branches in the chiding
stream. How proud, how glad I was to walk along the high road that overlooks
the delicious prospect, repeating the lines which I have just quoted from Mr
Coleridge's poems! But besides the prospect which opened beneath my feet,
another also opened to my inward sight, a heavenly vision, on which were
written, in letters large as Hope could make them, these four words, Liberty,
Genius, Love, Virtue; which have since faded in the light of common day or mock
my idle gaze.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"The Beautiful is vanished,
and returns not."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Still I would return some time or
other to this enchanted spot; but I would return to it alone. What other self
could I find to share that influx of thoughts of regret and delight, the
fragments of which I could hardly conjure up myself, so much have they been
broken and defaced! I could stand on some tall rock and over look the precipice
of years that separates me from what I then was. I was at that time going
shortly to visit the poet whom I have above named. Where is he now? Not only I
myself have changed; the world, which was then new to me, has become old and
incorrigible. Yet will I turn to thee in thought, O sylvan Dee, in joy, in
youth and gladness as though then wert; and thou shalt always be to me the
river of Paradise, where I will drink the waters of life freely!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There is hardly anything that shows the short-sightedness or
capriciousness of the imagination more than travelling does. With change of
place we change our ideas; nay . our opinions and feelings. We can by an effort
indeed transport ourselves to old and long-forgotten scenes, and then the
picture of the mind revives again; but we forget those that we have just left.
It seems that we can think but of one place at a time. The canvas of the fancy
is but of a certain extent, and if we paint one set of objects upon it, they
immediately efface every other. We cannot enlarge our conceptions, we can only
shift our point of view. The landscape bares its bosom to the enraptured eye,
we take our fill of it and seem as if we could form no other image of beauty or
grandeur. We pass on and think no more of it; the horizon that shuts if from
our sight, also blots it from our memory like a dream. In travelling through a
wild, barren country, I can form no idea of a woody and cultivated one. It
appears to me that all the world must be barren, like what I see of it. In the
country we forget the town and in the town we despise the country. "Beyond
Hyde Park," says Sir Fopling Flutter, "all is a desert." All
that part of the map which we do not see before us is a blank. The world in our
conceit of it is not much bigger than a nutshell. It is not one prospect
expanded into another, country joined to country, kingdom to kingdom, land to
seas, making an image voluminous and vast; --the mind can form no larger idea
of space than the eye can take in at a single glance. The rest is a name
written in a map, a calculation of arithmetic. For instance, what is the true
signification of that immense mass of territory and population, known by the
name of China to us? An inch of pasteboard on a wooden globe, of no more
account than a China orange! Things near us are seen at the size of life;
things at a distance are diminished to the size of the understanding. We
measure the universe by ourselves, and even comprehend the texture of our own
being only peace-meal. In this way, however, we remember an infinity of things
and places. The mind is like a mechanical instrument that plays a great variety
of tunes, but it must play them in succession. One idea recalls another, but it
at the same times excludes all others. In trying to renew old recollections, we
cannot as it were unfold the whole web of our existence; we must pick out the
single threads. So in coming to a place where we have formerly lived and with
which we have intimate associations, every one must have found that the feeling
grows more vivid the nearer we approach the spot, from the mere anticipation of
the actual impression; we remember circumstances, feelings, persons, faces,
names that we had not thought of for years; but for the time all the rest of
the world is forgotten! -- To return to the question I have quitted above:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I have no objection to go to see ruins, aqueducts, pictures, in company
with a friend or a party, bur rather the contrary, for the former reason
reversed. They are intelligible matters and will bear talking about. The
sentiment here is not tacit, but communicable and overt. Salisbury Plain is
barren of criticism, but Stonehenge will bear a discussion antiquarian, picturesque,
and philosophical. In setting out on a party of pleasure, the first
consideration is always where we shall go to, in taking a solitary ramble, the
question is what we shall meet with by the way. "The mind is its own
place"; nor are we anxious to arrive at the end of our journey. I can
myself do the honours indifferently well to works or art and curiosity. I once
took a party to Oxford with no mean <i>éclat</i> -- showed them the
seat of the Muses at a distance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"With glistering spires and
pinnacles adorn'd----"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">descanted on the learned air that
breathes from the grassy quadrangles and stone walls of halls and colleges --
was at home in the Bodleian; and at Blenheim quite superseded the powered
Cicerone that attended us, and that pointed in vain with his wand to
commonplace beauties in matchless pictures. -- As another exception to the
above reasoning, I should not feel confident in venturing on a journey in a
foreign country without a companion. I should want at intervals to hear the
sound of my own language. There is an involuntary antipathy in the mind of an
Englishmen to foreign manners and notions that requires the assistance of
social sympathy to carry it off. As the distance from home increases, this
relief, which was at first a luxury, becomes a passion and an appetite. A
person would almost feel stifled to find himself in the deserts of Arabia
without friends and countrymen; there must be allowed to be something in the
view of Athens or old Rome that claims the utterance of speech; and I own that
the Pyramids are too mighty for any single contemplation. In such situations,
so opposite to all one's ordinary train of ideas, one seems a species by one's
self, a limb torn off from society, unless one can meet with instant fellowship
and support. -- Yet I did not feel this want or craving very pressing once,
when I first set foot on the laughing shores of France. Calais was peopled with
novelty and delight. The confused, busy murmur of the place was like oil and
wine poured into my ears; nor did the mariner's hymn, which was sung from the
top of an old crazy vessel in the harbour, as the sun went down, send a alien
sound into my soul. I only breathed the air of general humanity. I walked over
"the vine-covered hills and gay regions of France," erect and satisfied;
for the image of man was not cast down and chained to the foot of arbitrary
thrones; I was at no loss for language, for that of all the great schools of
painting was open to me. The whole is vanished like a shade. Pictures, heroes,
glory, freedom, all are fled; nothing remains but the Bourbons and the French
People! -- There is undoubtedly a sensation in travelling into foreign parts
that is to be had nowhere else; but it is more pleasing at the time than
lasting. It is too remote from our habitual associations to be a common topic
of discourse or reference, and, like a dream of another state of existence,
does not piece into our daily modes of life. It is an animated but a momentary
hallucination. It demands an effort to exchange our actual for our ideal
identity; and to feel the pulse of our old transports revive very keenly, we
must "jump" all our present comforts and connexions. Our romantic and
itinerant character is not to be domesticated. </span><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Literary/BiosEssayists.htm#Johnson"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Dr. Johnson</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> remarked
how little foreign travel added to the facilities of conversation in those who
had been abroad. In fact, the time we have spent there is both delightful and
in one sense, instructive; but it appears to be cut out of our substantial,
downright existence, and never to join kindly on to it. We are not the same,
but another, and perhaps more enviable individual, all the time we are out of
our own country. We are lost to ourselves, as well as our friends. So the poet
somewhat quaintly sings,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">"Out of my country and myself
I go."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Those who wish to forget painful
thoughts, do well to absent themselves of a while from the ties and objects
that recall them; but we can be said only to fulfil our destiny in the place
that gave us birth. I should on this account like well enough to spend the
whole of my life in travelling abroad, if I could anywhere borrow another life
to spend afterwards at home!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">_______________________________<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="fn1">NOTES:<o:p></o:p></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#rfn1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">1</span></a> Hazlitt's
"On Going a Journey" is to be found in </span><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/TableHazIV.htm"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Table Talk, Essays on Men and
Manners</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1822).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="fn2"></a><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#rfn2"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">2</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (Near
Nether-Stowey, Somersetshire, where Hazlitt visited Coleridge in 1798.) The
original footnote found in Keynes' collection; I have, in turn, placed them in
parentheses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="fn3"></a><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#rfn3"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">3</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (Added from the Author's MS.
by W.C.H.) "W.C.H." is Hazlitt's son, William Carew (I believe)
Hazlitt.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="fn4"></a><a href="http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Hazlitt/TableTalk/GoingJourney.htm#rfn4"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">4</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (Added
from the Author's MS. by W.C.H.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: #f6f0e7; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
this piece William Hazlitt discusses going on a journey and how it is best to
travel alone as well as discussing all the things that can be gained and
observed in doing so. To discuss these topics Hazlitt utilizes many literary
devices, including irony when he states “puns alliterations, antitheses,
agreement, and analysis… I sometimes had rather be without them” (110). Hazlitt
makes use of paradox in his first paragraph when explaining why he prefers to
travel alone; “I am never lass alone than when alone” (109). He then uses
metaphor to describe what is gained by journeying alone; “Contemplation may
plume her feathers and let grow her wings, that in various bustle of resort
were all too ruffled, and sometimes impari’d” (109). He then continues to
describe the daily antithesis one feels in societal life; “to talk or be
silent, to walk or sit still, to be sociable or solitary” (110). All of Hazlitt’s
metaphors, antithesis, paradox, and other literary devices combine to portray
his attitude on society, nature, contemplation, and perspective. Hazlitt, like
many Romantics of the day, sees peace in nature, travelling, and solitude. He
also, however, recognizes man’s need for kinship; “I should… like well enough
to spend the whole of my life in travelling abroad, if I could anywhere borrow
another life to spend afterwards at home” (117).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sesame and Lilies. Lecture I.—Sesame: Of Kings’
Treasuries</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">John Ruskin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introductory Note</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">John Ruskin</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">JOHN RUSKIN (1819–1900),
the greatest master of ornate prose in the English language, was born in
London and educated at Oxford. He studied painting, and became a graceful
and accurate draftsman, but he early transferred his main energies from the
production to the criticism and teaching of art. In 1843 appeared the first
volume of “Modern Painters,” and succeeding volumes continued to be
published till it was completed by the fifth in 1860. The startling
originality of this work, both in style and in the nature of its esthetic
theories, brought the author at once into prominence, though for some time
he was more attacked than followed. Meanwhile he extended his scope to
include other fields. In “The Seven Lamps of Architecture” (1849) and “The
Stones of Venice” (1851–53) he applied his theories to architecture; in
“Pre-Raphaelitism” (1851) he came to the defense of the new school of art
then beginning to agitate England; in “Unto this Last” (1861) and many
other writings he attacked the current political economy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In spite of the
great variety of the themes of Ruskin’s numerous volumes, there are to be
found, underlying the eloquent argument, exposition, and exhortation of
all, a few persistent principles. The application of these principles in
one place is often inconsistent with that in another, and Ruskin frankly
reversed his opinion with great frequency in successive editions of the
same work; yet he continued to use a dogmatic tone which is at once his
strength and his weakness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The two lectures
which constitute “Sesame and Lilies” deal ostensibly with the reading of
books; but in characteristic fashion the author brings into the discussion
his favorite ideas on ethics, esthetics, economics, and many other
subjects. It thus gives a fairly comprehensive idea of the nature of the
widespread influence which he exerted on English life and thought during
the whole of the second half of the nineteenth century. Its style also, in
its earnestness, its richness, and its lofty eloquence, exemplifies the
pitch to which he brought the tradition of the highly decorated prose
cultivated by De Quincey in the previous generation, a pitch of
gorgeousness in color and cadence which has been surpassed by none.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 3</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“You shall each have a cake of
sesame,—and ten pound.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LUCIAN: <i>The
Fisherman.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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MY<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt1"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">1</span></a> first
duty this evening is to ask your pardon for the ambiguity of title under
which the subject of lecture has been announced: for indeed I am not going to
talk of kings, known as regnant, nor of treasuries, understood to contain
wealth; but of quite another order of royalty, and another material of
riches, than those usually acknowledged. I had even intended to ask your
attention for a little while on trust, and (as sometimes one contrives, in
taking a friend to see a favorite piece of scenery) to hide what I wanted
most to show, with such imperfect cunning as I might, until we unexpectedly
reached the best point of view by winding paths. But—and as also I have heard
it said, by men practised in public address, that hearers are never so much
fatigued as by the endeavor to follow a speaker who gives them no clue to his
purposes,—I will take the slight mask off at once, and tell you plainly that
I want to speak to you about the treasures hidden in books; and about the way
we find them, and the way we lose them. A grave subject, you will say; and a
wide one! Yes; so wide that I shall make no effort to touch the compass of
it. I will try only to bring before you a few simple thoughts about reading,
which press themselves upon me every day more deeply, as I watch the course
of the public mind with respect to our daily enlarging means of education;
and the answeringly wider spreading on the levels, of the irrigation of
literature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2. It happens that I
have practically some connection with schools for different classes of youth;
and I receive many letters from parents respecting the education of their
children. In the mass of these letters I am always struck by the precedence
which the idea of a “position in life” takes above all other thoughts in the
parents’—more especially in the mothers’—minds. “The education befitting such
and such a <i>station in life”</i>—this is the phrase, this the object,
always. They never seek, as far as I can make out, an education good in
itself; even the conception of abstract rightness in training rarely seems
reached by the writers. But an education “which shall keep a good coat on my
son’s back;—which shall enable him to ring with confidence the visitors’ bell
at double-belled doors; which shall result ultimately in establishment of a
double-belled door to his own house;—in a word, which shall lead to
‘advancement in life’;—<i>this</i> we pray for on bent knees—and this
is <i>all</i> we pray for.” It never seems to occur to the parents
that there may be an education which, in itself, <i>is</i> advancement
in life;—that any other than that may perhaps be advancement in Death; and
that this essential education might be more easily got, or given, than they
fancy, if they set about it in the right way; while it is for no price, and
by no favor, to be got, if they set about it in the wrong.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="2"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 3. Indeed, among the
ideas most prevalent and effective in the mind of this busiest of countries,
I suppose the first—at least that which is confessed with the greatest
frankness, and put forward as the fittest stimulus to youthful exertion—is
this of “Advancement in Life.” May I ask you to consider with me what this
idea practically includes, and what it should include?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="3"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 3</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Practically, then, at
present, “advancement in life” means, becoming conspicuous in life;—obtaining
a position which shall be acknowledged by others to be respectable or
honorable. We do not understand by this advancement in general, the mere
making of money, but the being known to have made it; not the accomplishment
of any great aim, but the being seen to have accomplished it. In a word, we
mean the gratification of our thirst for applause. That thirst, if the last
infirmity of noble minds, is also the first infirmity of weak ones; and, on
the whole, the strongest impulsive influence of average humanity: the
greatest efforts of the race have always been traceable to the love of
praise, as its greatest catastrophes to the love of pleasure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="4"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 4</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 4. I am not about to
attack or defend this impulse. I want you only to feel how it lies at the
root of effort; especially of all modern effort. It is the gratification of
vanity which is, with us, the stimulus of toil, and balm of repose; so
closely does it touch the very springs of life that the wounding of our
vanity is always spoken of (and truly) as in its measure <i>mortal;</i> we
call it “mortification,” using the same expression which we should apply to a
gangrenous and incurable bodily hurt. And although few of us may be
physicians enough to recognize the various effect of this passion upon health
and energy, I believe most honest men know, and would at once acknowledge,
its leading power with them as a motive. The seaman does not commonly desire
to be made captain only because he knows he can manage the ship better than
any other sailor on board. He wants to be made captain that he may be <i>called</i> captain.
The clergyman does not usually want to be made a bishop only because he
believes no other hand can, as firmly as his, direct the diocese through its
difficulties. He wants to be made bishop primarily that he may be called “My
Lord.” And a prince does not usually desire to enlarge, or a subject to gain,
a kingdom, because he believes that no one else can as well serve the State,
upon its throne; but, briefly, because he wishes to be addressed as “Your
Majesty,” by as many lips as may be brought to such utterance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="5"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 5</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 5. This, then, being
the main idea of “advancement in life,” the force of it applies, for all of
us, according to our station, particularly to that secondary result of such
advancement which we call “getting into good society.” We want to get into
good society, not that we may have it, but that we may be seen in it; and our
notion of its goodness depends primarily on its conspicuousness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="6"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 6</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Will you pardon me if
I pause for a moment to put what I fear you may think an impertinent
question? I never can go on with an address unless I feel, or know, that my
audience are either with me or against me: I do not much care which, in
beginning; but I must know where they are; and I would fain find out, at this
instant, whether you think I am putting the motives of popular action too
low. I am resolved, to-night, to state them low enough to be admitted as
probable; for whenever, in my writings on Political Economy, I assume that a
little honesty, or generosity—or what used to be called “virtue”—may be
calculated upon as a human motive of action, people always answer me, saying,
“You must not calculate on that: that is not in human nature: you must not
assume anything to be common to men but acquisitiveness and jealousy; no
other feeling ever has influence on them, except accidentally, and in matters
out of the way of business.” I begin, accordingly, to-night low in the scale
of motives; but I must know if you think me right in doing so. Therefore, let
me ask those who admit the love of praise to be usually the strongest motive
in men’s minds in seeking advancement, and the honest desire of doing any
kind of duty to be an entirely secondary one, to hold up their hands. (<i>About
a dozen hands held up—the audience, partly not being sure the lecturer is
serious, and, partly, shy of expressing opinion.</i>) I am quite serious—I
really do want to know what you think; however, I can judge by putting the
reverse question. Will those who think that duty is generally the first, and
love of praise the second, motive, hold up their hands? (<i>One hand reported
to have been held up, behind the lecturer.</i>) Very good; I see you are with
me, and that you think I have not begun too near the ground. Now, without
teasing you by putting farther question, I venture to assume that you will
admit duty as at least a secondary or tertiary motive. You think that the desire
of doing something useful, or obtaining some real good, is indeed an existent
collateral idea, though a secondary one, in most men’s desire of advancement.
You will grant that moderately honest men desire place and office, at least
in some measure, for the sake of beneficent power; and would wish to
associate rather with sensible and well-informed persons than with fools and
ignorant persons, whether they are seen in the company of the sensible ones
or not. And finally, without being troubled by repetition of any common
truisms about the preciousness of friends, and the influence of companions,
you will admit, doubtless, that according to the sincerity of our desire that
our friends may be true, and our companions wise—and in proportion to the
earnestness and discretion with which we choose both, will be the general
chances of our happiness and usefulness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="7"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 7</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 6. But, granting that
we had both the will and the sense to choose our friends well, how few of us
have the power! or, at least, how limited, for most, is the sphere of choice!
Nearly all our associations are determined by chance, or necessity; and
restricted within a narrow circle. We cannot know whom we would; and those
whom we know, we cannot have at our side when we most need them. All the higher
circles of human intelligence are, to those beneath, only momentarily and
partially open. We may, by good fortune, obtain a glimpse of a great poet,
and hear the sound of his voice; or put a question to a man of science, and
be answered good-humoredly. We may intrude ten minutes’ talk on a cabinet
minister, answered probably with words worse than silence, being deceptive;
or snatch, once or twice in our lives, the privilege of throwing a bouquet in
the path of a Princess, or arresting the kind glance of a Queen. And yet
these momentary chances we covet; and spend our years, and passions, and
powers in pursuit of little more than these; while, meantime, there is a
society continually open to us, of people who will talk to us as long as we
like, whatever our rank or occupation;—talk to us in the best words they can
choose, and of the things nearest their hearts. And this society, because it
is so numerous and so gentle, and can be kept waiting round us all day
long,—kings and statesmen lingering patiently, not to grant audience, but to
gain it!—in those plainly furnished and narrow anterooms, our bookcase
shelves,—we make no account of that company,—perhaps never listen to a word
they would say, all day long!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="8"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 8</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 7. You may tell me,
perhaps, or think within yourselves, that the apathy with which we regard
this company of the noble, who are praying us to listen to them; and the
passion with which we pursue the company, probably of the ignoble who despise
us, or who have nothing to teach us, are grounded in this,—that we can see
the faces of the living men, and it is themselves, and not their sayings,
with which we desire to become familiar. But it is not so. Suppose you never
were to see their faces;—suppose you could be put behind a screen in the
statesman’s cabinet, or the prince’s chamber, would you not be glad to listen
to their words, though you were forbidden to advance beyond the screen? And
when the screen is only a little less, folded in two instead of four, and you
can be hidden behind the cover of the two boards that bind a book, and listen
all day long, not to the casual talk, but to the studied, determined, chosen
addresses of the wisest of men;—this station of audience, and honorable privy
council, you despise!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="9"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 9</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 8. But perhaps you
will say that it is because the living people talk of things that are
passing, and are of immediate interest to you, that you desire to hear them.
Nay; that cannot be so, for the living people will themselves tell you about
passing matters much better in their writings than in their careless talk.
But I admit that this motive does influence you, so far as you prefer those
rapid and ephemeral writings to slow and enduring writings,—books, properly
so called. For all books are divisible into two classes, the books of the
hour, and the books of all time. Mark this distinction—it is not one of
quality only. It is not merely the bad book that does not last, and the good
one that does. It is a distinction of species. There are good books for the
hour, and good ones for all time; bad books for the hour, and bad ones for
all time. I must define the two kinds before I go farther.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="10"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 10</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 9. The good book of
the hour, then,—I do not speak of the bad ones,—is simply the useful or
pleasant talk of some person whom you cannot otherwise converse with, printed
for you. Very useful often, telling you what you need to know; very pleasant
often, as a sensible friend’s present talk would be. These bright accounts of
travels; good-humored and witty discussions of question; lively or pathetic
story-telling in the form of novel; firm fact-telling, by the real agents
concerned in the events of passing history,; all these books of the hour,
multiplying among us as education becomes more general, are a peculiar
possession of the present age; we ought to be entirely thankful for them, and
entirely ashamed of ourselves if we make no good use of them. But we make the
worst possible use if we allow them to usurp the place of true books: for
strictly speaking, they are not books at all, but merely letters or
newspapers in good print. Our friend’s letter may be delightful, or
necessary, to-day: whether worth keeping or not, is to be considered. The
newspaper may be entirely proper at breakfast time, but assuredly it is not
reading for all day. So, though bound up in a volume, the long letter which
gives you so pleasant an account of the inns, and roads, and weather last
year at such a place, or which tells you that amusing story, or gives you the
real circumstances of such and such events, however valuable for occasional
reference, may not be, in the real sense of the word, a “book” at all, nor in
the real sense, to be “read.” A book is essentially not a talked thing, but a
written thing; and written, not with the view of mere communication, but of
permanence. The book of talk is printed only because its author cannot speak
to thousands of people at once; if he could, he would—the volume is
mere <i>multiplication</i> of his voice. You cannot talk to your
friend in India, if you could, you would; you write instead: that is
mere <i>conveyance</i> of voice. But a book is written, not to
multiply the voice merely, not to carry it merely, but to perpetuate it. The
author has something to say which he perceives to be true and useful, or
helpfully beautiful. So far as he knows, no one has yet said it; so far as he
knows, no one else can say it. He is bound to say it, clearly and melodiously
if he may; clearly, at all events. In the sum of his life he finds this to be
the thing, or group of things, manifest to him;—this, the piece of true
knowledge, or sight, which his share of sunshine and earth has permitted him
to seize. He would fain set it down forever; engrave it on rock, if he could;
saying, “This is the best of me; for the rest, I ate, and drank, and slept,
loved, and hated, like another; my life was as the vapor and is not; but this
I saw and knew: this, if anything of mine, is worth your memory.” That is his
“writing”; it is, in his small human way, and with whatever degree of true
inspiration is in him, his inscription, or scripture. That is a “Book.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="11"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 11</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 10. Perhaps you think
no books were ever so written.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="12"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 12</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But, again, I ask you,
do you at all believe in honesty, or at all in kindness? or do you think
there is never any honesty or benevolence in wise people? None of us, I hope,
are so unhappy as to think that. Well, whatever bit of a wise man’s work is
honestly and benevolently done, that bit is his book, or his piece of art.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt2"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2</span></a> It
is mixed always with evil fragments—ill-done, redundant, affected work. But
if you read rightly, you will easily discover the true bits, and those <i>are</i> the
book.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="13"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 13</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 11. Now books of this
kind have been written in all ages by their greatest men:—by great readers,
great statesmen, and great thinkers. These are all at your choice; and Life
is short. You have heard as much before;—yet have you measured and mapped out
this short life and its possibilities? Do you know, if you read this, that
you cannot read that—that what you lose to-day you cannot gain to-morrow?
Will you go and gossip with your housemaid, or your stable-boy, when you may
talk with queens and kings; or flatter yourselves that it is with any worthy
consciousness of your own claims to respect that you jostle with the hungry
and common crowd for <i>entrée</i> here, and audience there, when
all the while this eternal court is open to you, with its society, wide as
the world, multitudinous as its days, the chosen, and the mighty, of every
place and time? Into that you may enter always; in that you may take
fellowship and rank according to your wish; from that, once entered into it,
you can never be outcast but by your own fault; by your aristocracy of
companionship there, your own inherent aristocracy will be assuredly tested,
and the motives with which you strive to take high place in the society of
the living, measured, as to all the truth and sincerity that are in them, by
the place you desire to take in this company of the Dead.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="14"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 14</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 12. “The place you
desire,” and the place you <i>fit yourself for,</i> I must also
say; because, observe, this court of the past differs from all living
aristocracy in this:—it is open to labor and to merit, but to nothing else.
No wealth will bribe, no name overawe, no artifice deceive, the guardian of
those Elysian gates, In the deep sense, no vile or vulgar person ever enters
there. At the portieres of that silent Faubourg St. Germain, there is but
brief question:—“Do you deserve to enter? Pass. Do you ask to be the
companion of nobles? Make yourself noble, and you shall be. Do you long for
the conversation of the wise? Learn to understand it, and you shall hear it.
But on other terms?—no. If you will not rise to us, we cannot stoop to you.
The living lord may assume courtesy, the living philosopher explain his
thought to you with considerate pain; but here we neither feign nor
interpret; you must rise to the level of our thoughts if you would be
gladdened by them, and share our feelings, if you would recognize our
presence”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="15"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 15</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 13. This, then, is
what you have to do, and I admit that it is much. You must, in a word, love
these people, if you are to be among them. No ambition is of any use. They
scorn your ambition. You must love them, and show your love in these two
following ways:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="16"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 16</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> I.—First, by a true
desire to be taught by them, and to enter into their thoughts. To enter into
theirs, observe; not to find your own expressed by them. If the person who
wrote the book is not wiser than you, you need not read it; if he be, he will
think differently from you in many respects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="17"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 17</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Very ready we are to
say of a book, “How good this is—that’s exactly what I think!” But the right
feeling is, “How strange that is! I never thought of that before, and yet I
see it is true; or if I do not now, I hope I shall, some day.” But whether
thus submissively or not, at least be sure that you go to the author to get
at <i>his</i> meaning, not to find yours. Judge it afterwards, if
you think yourself qualified to do so; but ascertain it first. And be sure also,
if the author is worth anything, that you will not get at his meaning all at
once;—nay, that at his whole meaning you will not for a long time arrive in
any wise. Not that he does not say what he means, and in strong words too;
but he cannot say it all; and what is more strange, will not, but in a hidden
way and in parables, in order that he may be sure you want it. I cannot quite
see the reason of this, nor analyze that cruel reticence in the breasts of
wise men which makes them always hide their deeper thought. They do not give
it to you by way of help, but of reward; and will make themselves sure that
you deserve it before they allow you to reach it. But it is the same with the
physical type of wisdom, gold. There seems, to you and me, no reason why the
electric forces of the earth should not carry whatever there is of gold
within it at once to the mountain tops, so that kings and people might now
that all the gold they could get was there; and without any trouble and
digging, or anxiety, or chance, or waste of time, cut it away, and coin as
much as they needed. But Nature does not manage it so. She puts it in little
fissures in the earth, nobody knows where: you may dig long and find none;
you must dig painfully to find any.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="18"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 18</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 14. And it is just the
same with men’s best wisdom. When you come to a good book, you must ask
yourself, “Am I inclined to work as an Australian miner would? Are my
pickaxes and shovels in good order, and am I in good trim myself, my sleeves
well up to the elbow, and my breath good, and my temper?” And, keeping the
figure a little longer, even at the cost of tiresomeness, for it is a
thoroughly useful one, the metal you are in search of being the author’s mind
or meaning, his words are as the rock which you have to crush and smelt in
order to get at it. And your pickaxes are your own care, wit, and learning;
your smelting-furnace is your own thoughtful soul. Do not hope to get at any
good author’s meaning without those tools and that fire; often you will need
sharpest, finest chiseling, and patientest fusing, before you can gather one
grain of the metal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="19"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 19</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 15. And therefore,
first of all, I tell you, earnestly and authoritatively (I <i>know</i> I
am right in this,) you must get into the habit of looking intensely at words,
and assuring yourself of their meaning, syllable by syllable—nay, letter by
letter. For though it is only by reason of the opposition of letters in the
function of signs, to sounds in the function of signs, that the study of
books is called “literature,” and that a man versed in it is called, by the
consent of nations, a man of letters instead of a man of books, or of words,
you may yet connect with that accidental nomenclature this real fact:—that
you might read all the books in the British Museum (if you could live long
enough) and remain an utterly “illiterate,” uneducated person; but that if
you read ten pages of a good book, letter by letter,—that is to say, with
real accuracy,—you are forevermore in some measure an educated person. The
entire difference between education and non-education (as regards the merely
intellectual part of it) consists in this accuracy. A well-educated gentleman
may not know many languages,—may not be able to speak any but his own,—may
have read very few books. But whatever language he knows, he knows precisely;
whatever word he pronounces, he pronounces rightly; above all, he is learned
in the <i>peerage</i> of words; knows the words of true descent and
ancient blood at a glance, from words of modern canaille; remembers all their
ancestry, their inter-marriages, distant relationships, and the extent to
which they were admitted, and offices they held, among the national noblesse
of words at any time, and in any country. But an uneducated person may know,
by memory, many languages, and talk them all, and yet truly know not a word
of any,—not a word even of his own. An ordinarily clever and sensible seaman
will be able to make his way ashore at most ports; yet he has only to speak a
sentence of any language to be known for an illiterate person: so also the
accent, or turn of expression of a single sentence, will at once mark a
scholar. And this is so strongly felt, so conclusively admitted by educated
persons, that a false accent or a mistaken syllable is enough, in the
parliament of any civilized nation, to assign to a man a certain degree of
inferior standing forever.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="20"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 20</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 16. And this is right;
but it is a pity that the accuracy insisted on is not greater, and required
to a serious purpose. It is right that a false Latin quantity should excite a
smile in the House of Commons; but it is wrong that a false English <i>meaning</i> should <i>not</i> excite
a frown there. Let the accent of words be watched; and closely: let their
meaning be watched more closely still, and fewer will do the work. A few
words well chosen and distinguished, will do work that a thousand cannot,
when every one is acting, equivocally, in the function of another. Yes; and
words, if they are not watched, will do deadly work sometimes. There are
masked words droning and skulking about us in Europe just now,—(there never
were so many, owing to the spread of a shallow, blotching, blundering,
infectious, “information,” or rather deformation, everywhere, and to the
teaching of catechisms and phrases at schools instead of human meanings)—there
are masked words abroad, I say, which nobody understands, but which everybody
uses, and most people will also fight for, live for, or even die for,
fancying they mean this or that, or the other, of things dear to them: for
such words wear chameleon cloaks—“groundlion” cloaks, of the color of the
ground of any man’s fancy: on that ground they lie in wait, and rend him with
a spring from it. There never were creatures of prey so mischievous, never
diplomatists so cunning, never poisoners so deadly, as these masked words;
they are the unjust stewards of all men’s ideas: whatever fancy or favorite
instinct a man most cherishes, he gives to his favorite masked word to take
care of for him; the word at last comes to have an infinite power over
him,—you cannot get at him but by its ministry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="21"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 21</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 17. And in languages
so mongrel in breed as the English, there is a fatal power of equivocation
put into men’s hands, almost whether they will or no, in being able to use
Greek or Latin words for an idea when they want it to be awful; and Saxon or
otherwise common words when they want it to be vulgar. What a singular and
salutary effect, for instance, would be produced on the minds of people who
are in the habit of taking the Form of the “Word” they live by, for the Power
of which that Word tells them, if we always either retained, or refused, the
Greek form “biblos,” or “biblion,” as the right expression for “book”—instead
of employing it only in the one instance in which we wish to give dignity to
the idea, and translating it into English everywhere else. How wholesome it
would be for many simple persons, if, in such places (for instance) as Acts
xix. 19, we retained the Greek expression, instead of translating it, and
they had to read—“Many of them also which used curious arts, brought their
bibles together, and burnt them before all men; and they counted the price of
them, and found it fifty thousand pieces of silver”! Or if, on the other
hand, we translated where we retain it, and always spoke of “The Holy Book,”
instead of “Holy Bible,” it might come into more heads than it does at
present, that the Word of God, by which the heavens were, of old, and by
which they are now kept in store,<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt3"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.3"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">3</span></a> cannot be made a
present of to anybody in morocco binding; nor sown on any wayside by help
either of steam plough or steam press; but is nevertheless being offered to
us daily, and by us with contumely refused; and sown in us daily, and by us,
as instantly as may be, choked.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="22"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 22</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 18. So, again,
consider what effect has been produced on the English vulgar mind by the use
of the sonorous Latin form “damno,” in translating the Greek [Greek], when
people charitably wish to make it forcible; and the substitution of the temperate
“condemn” for it, when they choose to keep it gentle; and what notable
sermons have been preached by illiterate clergymen on—“He that believeth not
shall be damned”; though they would shrink with horror from translating Heb.
xi. 7, “The saving of his house, by which he damned the world”; or John viii.
10, 11, “Woman, hath no man damned thee? She saith, No man, Lord. Jesus
answered her, Neither do I damn thee; go and sin no more.” And divisions in
the mind of Europe, which have cost seas of blood and in the defense of which
the noblest souls of men have been cast away in frantic desolation, countless
as forest leaves—though, in the heart of them, founded on deeper causes—have
nevertheless been rendered practicably possible, namely, by the European
adoption of the Greek word for a public meeting, “ecclesia,” to give peculiar
respectability to such meetings, when held for religious purposes; and other
collateral equivocations, such as the vulgar English one of using the word
“priest” as a contraction for “presbyter.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="23"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 23</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 19. Now, in order to
deal with words rightly, this is the habit you must form. Nearly every word
in your language has been first a word of some other language—of Saxon,
German, French, Latin, or Greek (not to speak of eastern and primitive dialects).
And many words have been all these;—that is to say, have been Greek first,
Latin next, French and German next, and English last: undergoing a certain
change of sense and use on the lips of each nation; but retaining a deep
vital meaning, which all good scholars feel in employing them, even at this
day. If you do not know the Greek alphabet, learn it; young or old—girl or
boy—whoever you may be, if you think of reading seriously (which, of course,
implies that you have some leisure at command), learn your Greek alphabet;
then get good dictionaries of all these languages, and whenever you are in
doubt about a word, hunt it down patiently. Read Max Müller’s lectures
thoroughly, to begin with; and, after that, never let a word escape you that
looks suspicious. It is severe work; but you will find it, even at first,
interesting, and at last, endlessly amusing. And the general gain to your
character, in power and precision, will be quite incalculable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="24"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 24</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Mind, this does not
imply knowing, or trying to know, Greek or Latin, or French. It takes a whole
life to learn any language perfectly. But you can easily ascertain the
meanings through which the English word has passed; and those which in a good
writer’s work it must still bear.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="25"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 25</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 20. And now, merely
for example’s sake, I will, with your permission, read a few lines of a true
book with you, carefully; and see what will come out of them. I will take a
book perfectly known to you all. No English words are more familiar to us,
yet few perhaps have been read with less sincerity. I will take these few
following lines of “Lycidas”:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Last came, and last did go,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The pilot of the Galilean lake;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two massy keys he bore of metals
twain,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(The golden opes, the iron shuts
amain),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He shook his mitred locks, and
stern bespake,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘How well could I have spar’d
for thee, young swain,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enow of such as for their
bellies’ sake<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Creep, and intrude, and climb
into the fold!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of other care they little
reckoning make,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Than how to scramble at the
shearers’ feast,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And shove away the worthy bidden
guest;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blind mouths! that scarce
themselves know how to hold<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A sheep-hook, or have learn’d
aught else, the least<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That to the faithful herdsman’s
art belongs!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What recks it them? What need
they? They are sped;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And when they list, their lean
and flashy songs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Grate on their scrannel pipes of
wretched straw;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The hungry sheep look up, and
are not fed,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But, swoln with wind, and the
rank mist they draw,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rot inwardly, and foul contagion
spread;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Besides what the grim wolf with
privy paw<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Daily devours apace, and nothing
said.’”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="26"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 26</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Let us think over this
passage, and examine its words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="27"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 27</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> First, is it not
singular to find Milton assigning to St. Peter, not only his full episcopal function,
but the very types of it which Protestants usually refuse most passionately?
His “mitred” locks! Milton was no Bishop—lover; how comes St. Peter to be
“mitred”? “Two massy keys he bore.” Is this, then, the power of the keys
claimed by the Bishops of Rome, and is it acknowledged here by Milton only in
a poetical license, for the sake of its picturesqueness, that he may get the
gleam of the golden keys to help his effect? Do not think it. Great men do
not play stage tricks with doctrines of life and death: only little men do
that. Milton means what he says; and means it with his might too—is going to
put the whole strength of his spirit presently into the saying of it. For
though not a lover of false bishops, he <i>was</i> a lover of true
ones; and the Lake-pilot is here, in his thoughts, the type and head of true
episcopal power. For Milton reads that text, “I will give unto thee the keys
of the kingdom of heaven” quite honestly. Puritan though he be, he would not
blot it out of the book because there have been bad bishops; nay, in order to
understand <i>him,</i> we must understand that verse first; it will
not do to eye it askance, or whisper it under our breath, as if it were a
weapon of an adverse sect. It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply to be
kept in mind by all sects. But perhaps we shall be better able to reason on
it if we go on a little farther, and come back to it. For clearly this marked
insistence on the power of the true episcopate is to make us feel more
weightily what is to be charged against the false claimants of episcopate; or
generally, against false claimants of power and rank in the body of the
clergy; they who, “for their bellies’ sake, creep, and intrude, and climb
into the fold.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="28"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 28</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 21. Never think Milton
uses those three words to fill up his verse, as a loose writer would. He
needs all the three; especially those three, and no more than those—“creep,”
and “intrude.” and “climb”; no other words would or could serve the turn, and
no more could be added. For they exhaustively comprehend the three classes,
correspondent to the three characters, of men who dishonestly seek
ecclesiastical power. First, those who <i>“creep”</i> into the
fold; who do not care for office, nor name, but for secret influence, and do
all things occultly and cunningly, consenting to any servility of office or
conduct, so only that they may intimately discern, and unawares direct, the
minds of men. Then those who “intrude” (thrust, that is) themselves into the
fold, who by natural insolence of heart, and stout eloquence of tongue, and
fearlessly perseverant self-assertion, obtain hearing and authority with the
common crowd. Lastly, those who “climb,” who by labor and learning, both
stout and sound, but selfishly exerted in the cause of their own ambition,
gain high dignities and authorities, and become “lords over the heritage,”
though not “ensamples to the flock.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="29"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 29</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 22. Now go on:—<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" class="MsoNormalTable">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Of other care they little
reckoning make,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Than how to scramble at the
shearers’ feast.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blind mouths—”</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="30"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 30</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> I pause again, for
this is a strange expression; a broken metaphor, one might think, careless
and unscholarly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="31"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 31</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Not so: its very
audacity and pithiness are intended to make us look close at the phrase and
remember it. Those two monosyllables express the precisely accurate
contraries of right character, in the two great offices of the Church—those
of bishop and pastor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="32"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 32</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A “Bishop” means a
“person who sees.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="33"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 33</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A “Pastor” means a
“person who feeds.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;" valign="top"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="34"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 34</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The most unbishoply
character a man can have is therefore to be Blind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="35"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 35</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The most unpastoral
is, instead of feeding, to want to be fed,—to be a Mouth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="36"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 36</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Take the two reverses
together, and you have “blind mouths.” We may advisably follow out this idea
a little. Nearly all the evils in the Church have arisen from bishops
desiring <i>power</i> more than <i>light.</i> They want
authority, not outlook. Whereas their real office is not to rule; though it
may be vigorously to exhort and rebuke; it is the king’s office to rule; the
bishop’s office is to <i>oversee</i> the flock; to number it, sheep
by sheep; to be ready always to give full account of it. Now it is clear he
cannot give account of the souls, if he has not so much as numbered the
bodies of his flock. The first thing, therefore, that a bishop has to do is
at least to put himself in a position in which, at any moment, he can obtain
the history, from childhood, of every living soul in his diocese, and of its
present state. Down in that back street, Bill and Nancy, knocking each
other’s teeth out!—Does the bishop know all about it? Has he his eye upon
them? Has he <i>had</i> his eye upon them? Can he circumstantially
explain to us how Bill got into the habit of beating Nancy about the head? If
he cannot, he is no bishop, though he had a mitre as high as Salisbury
steeple; he is no bishop,—he has sought to be at the helm instead of the
masthead; he has no sight of things. “Nay,” you say, “it is not his duty to
look after Bill in the back street.” What! the fat sheep that have full
fleeces—you think it is only those he should look after, while (go back to
your Milton) “the hungry sheep look up, and are not fed, besides what the
grim wolf with privy paw” (bishops knowing nothing about it) “daily devours
apace, and nothing said”?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="37"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 37</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> “But that’s not our
idea of a bishop.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt4"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.4"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">4</span></a> Perhaps not; but
it was St. Paul’s; and it was Milton’s. They may be right, or we may be; but
we must not think we are reading either one or the other by putting our
meaning into their words.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="38"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 38</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 23. I go on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“But, swoln with wind, and the
rank mist they draw.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="39"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 39</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This is to meet the
vulgar answer that “if the poor are not looked after in their bodies, they
are in their souls; they have spiritual food.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="40"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 40</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And Milton says, “They
have no such thing as spiritual food; they are only swollen with wind.” At
first you may think that is a coarse type, and an obscure one. But again, it
is a quite literally accurate one. Take up your Latin and Greek dictionaries,
and find out the meaning of “Spirit.” It is only a contraction of the Latin
word “breath,” and an indistinct translation of the Greek word for “wind.”
The same word is used in writing, “The wind bloweth where is listeth”; and in
writing, “So is every one that is born of the Spirit”; born of the <i>breath,</i> that
is; for it means the breath of God, in soul and body. We have the true sense
of it in our words “inspiration” and “expire.” Now, there are two kinds of
breath with which the flock may be filled; God’s breath, and man’s. The
breath of God is health, and life, and peace to them, as the air of heaven is
to the flocks on the hills; but man’s breath—the word which <i>he</i> calls
spiritual,—is disease and contagion to them, as the fog of the fen. They rot
inwardly with it; they are puffed up by it, as a dead body by the vapors of
its own decomposition. This is literally true of all false religious
teaching; the first and last, and fatalest sign of it is that “puffing up.”
Your converted children, who teach their parents; your converted convicts,
who teach honest men; your converted dunces, who, having lived in cretinous
stupefaction half their lives, suddenly awakening to the fact of there being
a God, fancy themselves therefore His peculiar people and messengers; your sectarians
of every species, small and great, Catholic or Protestant, of high church or
low, in so far as they think themselves exclusively in the right and others
wrong; and preeminently, in every sect, those who hold that men can be saved
by thinking rightly instead of doing rightly, by word instead of act, and
wish instead of work:—these are the true fog children—clouds, these, without
water; bodies, these, of putrescent vapor and skin, without blood or flesh:
blown bag-pipes for the fiends to pipe with—corrupt, and corrupting,—“Swollen
with wind, and the rank mist they draw.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="41"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 41</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 24. Lastly, let us
return to the lines respecting the power of the keys, for now we can
understand them. Note the difference between Milton and Dante in their
interpretation of this power: for once, the latter is weaker in thought; he
supposes <i>both</i> the keys to be of the gate of heaven; one is
of gold, the other of silver: they are given by St. Peter to the sentinel
angel; and it is not easy to determine the meaning either of the substances
of the three steps of the gate, or of the two keys. But Milton makes one, of
gold, the key of heaven; the other, of iron, the key of the prison in which
the wicked teachers are to be bound who “have taken away the key of
knowledge, yet entered not in themselves.”We have seen that the duties of
bishop and pastor are to see and feed; and of all who do so it is said, “He
that watereth, shall be watered also himself.” But the reverse is truth also.
He that watereth not, shall be <i>withered</i> himself, and he that
seeth not, shall himself be shut out of sight—shut into the perpetual
prison-house. And that prison opens here, as well as hereafter: he who is to
be bound in heaven must first be bound on earth. That command to the strong
angels, of which the rock-apostle is the image, “Take him and bind him hand
and foot, and cast him out,” issues, in its measure, against the teacher, for
every help withheld, and for every truth refused, and for every falsehood
enforced; so that he is more strictly fettered the more he fetters, and
farther outcast, as he more and more misleads, till at last the bars of the
iron cage close upon him, and as “the golden opes, the iron shuts amain.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="42"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 42</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 25. We have got
something out of the lines, I think, and much more is yet to be found in
them; but we have done enough by way of example of the kind of word-by-word
examination of your author which is rightly called “reading”; watching every
accent and expression, and putting ourselves always in the author’s place,
annihilating our own personality, and seeking to enter into his, so as to be
able assuredly to say, “Thus Milton thought,” not “Thus <i>I</i> thought,
in mis-reading Milton.” And by this process you will gradually come to attach
less weight to your own “Thus I thought” at other times. You will begin to
perceive that what <i>you</i> thought was a matter of no serious
importance;—that your thoughts on any subject are not perhaps the clearest
and wisest that could be arrived at thereupon:—in fact, that unless you are a
very singular person, you cannot be said to have any “thoughts” at all; that
you have no materials for them, in any serious matters;<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt5"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.5"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">5</span></a>—no right to “think,”
but only to try to learn more of the facts. Nay, most probably all your life
(unless, as I said, you are a singular person) you will have no legitimate
right to an “opinion” on any business, except that instantly under your hand.
What must of necessity be done, you can always find out, beyond question, how
to do. Have you a house to keep in order, a commodity to sell, a field to
plough, a ditch to cleanse? There need be no two opinions about these
proceedings; it is at your peril if you have not much more than an “opinion”
on the way to manage such matters. And also, outside of your own business,
there are one or two subjects on which you are bound to have but one opinion.
That roguery and lying are objectionable, and are instantly to be flogged out
of the way whenever discovered;—that covetousness and love of quarreling are
dangerous dispositions even in children, and deadly dispositions in men and
nations;—that in the end, the God of heaven and earth loves active, modest,
and kind people, and hates idle, proud, greedy, and cruel ones;—on these
general facts you are bound to have but one, and that a very strong, opinion.
For the rest, respecting religions, governments, sciences, arts, you will
find That, on the whole, you can know NOTHING,—judge nothing; that the
best you can do, even though you may be a well-educated person, is to be
silent, and strive to be wiser every day, and to understand a little more of
the thoughts of others, which so soon as you try to do honestly, you will
discover that the thoughts even of the wisest are very little more than pertinent
questions. To put the difficulty into a clear shape, and exhibit to you the
grounds for <i>in</i>decision, that is all they can generally do for
you!—and well for them and for us, if indeed they are able “to mix the music
with our thoughts, and sadden us with heavenly doubts.” This writer, from
whom I have been reading to you, is not among the first or wisest: he sees
shrewdly as far as he sees, and therefore it is easy to find out his full
meaning; but with the greater men, you cannot fathom their meaning; they do
not even wholly measure it themselves,—it is so wide. Suppose I had asked
you, for instance, to seek for Shakespeare’s opinion, instead of Milton’s, on
this matter of Church authority?—or for Dante’s? Have any of you, at this
instant, the least idea what either thought about it? Have you ever balanced
the scene with the bishops in “Richard III.” against the character of
Cranmer? the description of St. Francis and St. Dominic against that of him
who made Virgil wonder to gaze upon him,—“disteso, tanto vilmente, nell’
eterno esilio”; or of him whom Dante stood beside, “come ’l frate che
confessa lo perfido assassin?”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt6"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.6"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">6</span></a> Shakespeare and
Alighieri knew men better than most of us, I presume! They were both in the
midst of the main struggle between the temporal and spiritual powers. They
had an opinion, we may guess. But where is it? Bring it into court! Put
Shakespeare’s or Dante’s creed into articles, and send <i>it</i> up
for trial by the Ecclesiastical Courts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="43"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 43</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 26. You will not be
able, I tell you again, for many and many a day, to come at the real purposes
and teaching of these great men; but a very little honest study of them will
enable you to perceive that what you took for your own “judgment” was mere
chance prejudice, and drifted, helpless, entangled weed of castaway thought:
nay, you will see that most men’s minds are indeed little better than rough
heath wilderness, neglected and stubborn, partly barren, partly overgrown
with pestilent brakes, and venomous, wind-sown herbage of evil surmise; that
the first thing you have to do for them, and yourself, is eagerly and
scornfully to set fire to <i>this;</i> burn all the jungle into
wholesome ash heaps, and then plough and sow. All the true literary work
before you, for life, must begin with obedience to that order, “Break up your
fallow ground, and <i>sow not among thorns.”</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="44"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 44</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 27. II.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt7"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.7"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">7</span></a>—Having then faithfully
listened to the great teachers, that you may enter into their Thoughts, you
have yet this higher advance to make;—you have to enter into their Hearts. As
you go to them first for clear sight, so you must stay with them, that you
may share at last their just and mighty Passion. Passion, or “sensation.” I
am not afraid of the word; still less of the thing. You have heard many
outcries against sensation lately; but, I can tell you, it is not less
sensation we want, but more. The ennobling difference between one man and
another,—between one animal and another,—is precisely in this, that one feels
more than another. If we were sponges, perhaps sensation might not be easily
got for us; if we were earthworms, liable at every instant to be cut in two
by the spade, perhaps too much sensation might not be good for us. But, being
human creatures, <i>it is</i>good for us; nay, we are only human in so
far as we are sensitive, and our honor is precisely in proportion to our
passion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="45"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 45</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 28. You know I said of
that great and pure society of the dead, that it would allow “no vain or
vulgar person to enter there.” What do you think I meant by a “vulgar”
person? What do you yourselves mean by “vulgarity”? You will find it a
fruitful subject of thought; but, briefly, the essence of all vulgarity lies
in want of sensation. Simple and innocent vulgarity is merely an untrained
and undeveloped bluntness of body and mind; but in true inbred vulgarity,
there is a deathful callousness, which, in extremity, becomes capable of
every sort of bestial habit and crime, without fear, without pleasure,
without horror, and without pity. It is in the blunt hand and the dead heart,
in the diseased habit, in the hardened conscience, that men become vulgar;
they are forever vulgar, precisely in proportion as they are incapable of
sympathy,—of quick understanding,—of all that, in deep insistence on the
common, but most accurate term, may be called the “tact” or “touch—faculty”
of body and soul; that tact which the Mimosa has in trees, which the pure
woman has above all creatures;—fineness and fullness of sensation beyond
reason;—the guide and sanctifier of reason itself. Reason can but determine
what is true: it is the God-given passion of humanity which alone can
recognize what God has made good.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="46"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 46</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 29. We come then to
the great concourse of the Dead, not merely to know from them what is True,
but chiefly to feel with them what is just. Now, to feel with them, we must
be like them; and none of us can become that without pains. As the true
knowledge is disciplined and tested knowledge,—not the first thought that
comes,—so the true passion is disciplined and tested passion,—not the first
passion that comes. The first that come are the vain, the false, the
treacherous; if you yield to them they will lead you wildly and far in vain
pursuit, in hollow enthusiasm, till you have no true purpose and no true
passion left. Not that any feeling possible to humanity is in itself wrong,
but only wrong when undisciplined. Its nobility is in its force and justice;
it is wrong when it is weak, and felt for paltry cause. There is a mean
wonder, as of a child who sees a juggler tossing golden balls, and this is
base, if you will. But do you think that the wonder is ignoble, or the
sensation less, with which every human soul is called to watch the golden
balls of heaven tossed through the night by the Hand that made them? There is
a mean curiosity, as of a child opening a forbidden door, or a servant prying
into her master’s business;—and a noble curiosity, questioning, in the front
of danger, the source of the great river beyond the sand,—the place of the
great continents beyond the sea;—a nobler curiosity still, which questions of
the source of the River of Life, and of the space of the Continent of
Heaven,—things which “the angels desire to look into.” So the anxiety is
ignoble, with which you linger over the course and catastrophe of an idle
tale; but do you think the anxiety is less, or greater, with which you watch,
or <i>ought</i> to watch, the dealings of fate and destiny with the
life of an agonized nation? Alas! it is the narrowness, selfishness,
minuteness, of your sensation that you have to deplore in England at this
day;—sensation which spends itself in bouquets and speeches; in revelings and
junketings; in sham fights and gay puppet shows, while you can look on and
see noble nations murdered, man by man, without an effort or a tear.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="47"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 47</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 30. I said
“minuteness” and “selfishness” of sensation, but in a word, I ought to have
said “injustice” or “unrighteousness” of sensation. For as in nothing is a
gentleman better to be discerned from a vulgar person, so in nothing is a
gentle nation (such nations have been) better to be discerned from a mob,
than in this,—that their feelings are constant and just, results of due contemplation,
and of equal thought. You can talk a mob into anything; its feelings may
be—usually are—on the whole, generous and right; but it has no foundation for
them, no hold of them; you may tease or tickle it into any, at your pleasure;
it thinks by infection, for the most part, catching an opinion like a cold,
and there is nothing so little that it will not roar itself wild about, when
the fit is on;—nothing so great but it will forget in an hour, when the fit
is past. But a gentleman’s, or a gentle nation’s, passions are just,
measured, and continuous. A great nation, for instance, does not spend its
entire national wits for a couple of months in weighing evidence of a single
ruffian’s having done a single murder; and for a couple of years see its own
children murder each other by their thousands or tens of thousands a day,
considering only what the effect is likely to be on the price of cotton, and
caring nowise to determine which side of battle is in the wrong. Neither does
a great nation send its poor little boys to jail for stealing six walnuts;
and allow its bankrupts to steal their hundreds or thousands with a bow, and
its bankers, rich with poor men’s savings, to close their doors “under
circumstances over which they have no control,” with a “by your leave”; and
large landed estates to be bought by men who have made their money by going
with armed steamers up and down the China Seas, selling opium at the cannon’s
mouth, and altering, for the benefit of the foreign nation, the common
highwayman’s demand of “your money <i>or</i> your life,” into that
of “your money <i>and</i> your life.” Neither does a great nation
allow the lives of its innocent poor to be parched out of them by fog fever,
and rotted out of them by dunghill plague, for the sake of sixpence a life extra
per week to its landlords;<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt8"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.8"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">8</span></a>and then debate, with
driveling tears, and diabolical sympathies, whether it ought not piously to
save, and nursingly cherish, the lives of its murderers. Also, a great
nation, having made up its mind that hanging is quite the wholesomest process
for its homicides in general, can yet with mercy distinguish between the
degrees of guilt in homicides; and does not yelp like a pack of frost-pinched
wolf-cubs on the blood-track of an unhappy crazed boy, or gray-haired
clodpate Othello, “perplexed i’ the extreme,” at the very moment that it is
sending a Minister of the Crown to make polite speeches to a man who is
bayoneting young girls in their father’s sight, and killing noble youths in
cool blood, faster than a country butcher kills lambs in spring. And, lastly,
a great nation does not mock Heaven and its Powers, by pretending belief in a
revelation which asserts the love of money to be the root of <i>all</i> evil,
and declaring, at the same time, that it is actuated, and intends to be
actuated, in all chief national deeds and measures, by no other love.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 31. My friends, I do
not know why any of us should talk about reading. We want some sharper
discipline than that of reading; but, at all events, be assured, we cannot
read. No reading is possible for a people with its mind in this state. No
sentence of any great writer is intelligible to them. It is simply and
sternly impossible for the English public, at this moment, to understand any
thoughtful writing,—so incapable of thought has it become in its insanity of
avarice. Happily, our disease is, as yet, little worse than this incapacity
of thought; it is not corruption of the inner nature; we ring true still,
when anything strikes home to us; and though the idea that everything should
“pay” has infected our every purpose so deeply, that even when we would play
the good Samaritan, we never take out our two pence and give them to the host
without saying, “When I come again, thou shalt give me four pence,” there is
a capacity of noble passion left in our hearts’ core. We show it in our
work,—in our war,—even in those unjust domestic affections which make us
furious at a small private wrong, while we are polite to a boundless public
one: we are still industrious to the last hour of the day, though we add the
gambler’s fury to the laborer’s patience; we are still brave to the death,
though incapable of discerning true cause for battle; and are still true in
affection to our own flesh, to the death, as the sea-monsters are, and the
rock-eagles. And there is hope for a nation while this can be still said of
it. As long as it holds its life in its hand, ready to give it for its honor
(though a foolish honor), for its love (though a selfish love), and for its
business (though a base business), there is hope for it. But hope only; for
this instinctive, reckless virtue cannot last. No nation can last, which has
made a mob of itself, however generous at heart. It must discipline its passions,
and direct them, or they will discipline <i>it,</i> one day, with
scorpion whips. Above all a nation cannot last as a money-making mob: it
cannot with impunity,—it cannot with existence,—go on despising literature,
despising science, despising art, despising nature, despising compassion, and
concentrating its soul on Pence. Do you think these are harsh or wild words?
Have patience with me but a little longer. I will prove their truth to you,
clause by clause.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="49"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 49</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 32. I.—I say first we
have despised literature. What do we, as a nation, care about books? How much
do you think we spend altogether on our libraries, public or private, as
compared with what we spend on our horses? If a man spends lavishly on his
library you call him mad—a bibliomaniac. But you never call any one a
horsemaniac, though men ruin themselves every day by their horses, and you do
not hear of people ruining themselves by their books. Or, to go lower still,
how much do you think the contents of the bookshelves of the United Kingdom,
public and private, would fetch, as compared with the contents of its
wine-cellars? What position would its expenditure on literature take, as
compared with its expenditure on luxurious eating? We talk of food for the
mind, as of food for the body; now a good book contains such food
inexhaustibly; it is a provision for life, and for the best part of us; yet
how long most people would look at the best book before they would give the
price of a large turbot for it! though there have been men who have pinched their
stomachs and bared their backs to buy a book, whose libraries were cheaper to
them, I think, in the end, than most men’s dinners are. We are few of us put
to such trial, and more the pity; for, indeed, a precious thing is all the
more precious to us if it has been won by work or economy; and if public
libraries were half as costly as public dinners, or books cost the tenth part
of what bracelets do, even foolish men and women might sometimes suspect
there was good in reading, as well as in munching and sparkling; whereas the
very cheapness of literature is making even wise people forget that if a book
is worth reading, it is worth buying. No book is worth anything which is not
worth much; nor is it serviceable, until it has been read, and reread, and loved,
and loved again; and marked, so that you can refer to the passages you want
in it as a soldier can seize the weapon he needs in an armory, or a housewife
bring the spice she needs from her store. Bread of flour is good: but there
is bread, sweet as honey, if we would eat it, in a good book; and the family
must be poor indeed which, once in their lives, cannot, for such multipliable
barley-loaves, pay their baker’s bill. We call ourselves a rich nation, and
we are filthy and foolish enough to thumb each other’s books out of
circulating libraries!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="50"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 50</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 33. II.—I say we have
despised science. “What!” you exclaim, “are we not foremost in all discovery,<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt9"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.9"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">9</span></a> and
is not the whole world giddy by reason, or unreason, of our inventions?” Yes;
but do you suppose that is national work? That work is all done <i>in
spite of</i> the nation; by private people’s zeal and money. We are glad
enough, indeed, to make our profit of science; we snap up anything in the way
of a scientific bone that has meat on it, eagerly enough; but if the
scientific man comes for a bone or a crust to <i>us,</i>that is another
story. What have we publicly done for science? We are obliged to know what
o’clock it is, for the safety of our ships, and therefore we pay for an
observatory; and we allow ourselves, in the person of our Parliament, to be
annually tormented into doing something, in a slovenly way, for the British
Museum; sullenly apprehending that to be a place for keeping stuffed birds in,
to amuse our children. If anybody will pay for his own telescope, and resolve
another nebula, we cackle over the discernment as if it were our own; if one
in ten thousand of our hunting squires suddenly perceives that the earth was
indeed made to be something else than a portion for foxes, and burrows in it
himself, and tells us where the gold is, and where the coals, we understand
that there is some use in that; and very properly knight him; but is the
accident of his having found out how to employ himself usefully any credit
to <i>us?</i> (The negation of such discovery among his brother
squires may perhaps be some <i>dis</i>credit to us, if we would consider
of it.) But if you doubt these generalities, here is one fact for us all to
meditate upon, illustrative of our love of science. Two years ago there was a
collection of the fossils of Solenhofen to be sold in Bavaria; the best in
existence, containing many specimens unique for perfectness, and one unique
as an example of a species (a whole kingdom of unknown living creatures being
announced by that fossil.) This collection, of which the mere market worth,
among private buyers, would probably have been some thousand or twelve
hundred pounds, was offered to the English nation for seven hundred; but we
would not give seven hundred, and the whole series would have been in the
Munich Museum at this moment, if Professor Owen<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt10"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.10"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">10</span></a> had not with
loss of his own time, and patient tormenting of the British public in person
of its representatives, got leave to give four hundred pounds at once, and
himself become answerable for the other three! which the said public will
doubtless pay him eventually, but sulkily, and caring nothing about the
matter all the while; only always ready to cackle if any credit comes of it.
Consider, I beg of you, arithmetically, what this fact means. Your annual
expenditure for public purposes (a third of it for military apparatus) is at
least fifty millions. Now 700<i>l.</i> is to 50,000,000<i>l.</i> roughly,
as seven pence to two thousand pounds. Suppose, then, a gentleman of unknown
income, but whose wealth was to be conjectured from the fact that he spent
two thousand a year on his park-walls and footmen only, professes himself
fond of science; and that one of his servants comes eagerly to tell him that
an unique collection of fossils, giving clue to a new era of creation, is to
be had for the sum of seven pence sterling; and that the gentleman, who is
fond of science, and spends two thousand a year on his park, answers, after
keeping his servant waiting several months, “Well! I’ll give you four pence
for them, if you will be answerable for the extra three pence yourself, till
next year!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 34. III.—I say you
have despised Art! “What!” you again answer, “have we not Art exhibitions,
miles long? and do we not pay thousands of pounds for single pictures? and
have we not Art schools and institutions, more than ever nation had before?”
Yes, truly, but all that is for the sake of the shop. You would fain sell
canvas as well as coals, and crockery as well as iron; you would take every
other nation’s bread out of its mouth if you could;<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt11"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.11"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">11</span></a> not being able
to do that, your ideal of life is to stand in the thoroughfares of the world,
like Ludgate apprentices, screaming to every passer-by, “What d’ye lack?” You
know nothing of your own faculties or circumstances; you fancy that, among
your damp, flat fields of clay, you can have as quick art-fancy as the
Frenchman among his bronzed vines, or the Italian under his volcanic
cliffs;—that Art may be learned as bookkeeping is, and when learned, will
give you more books to keep. You care for pictures, absolutely, no more than
you do for the bills pasted on your dead walls. There is always room on the
walls for the bills to be read,—never for the pictures to be seen. You do not
know what pictures you have (by repute) in the country, nor whether they are
false or true, nor whether they are taken care of or not; in foreign
countries, you calmly see the noblest existing pictures in the world rotting
in abandoned wreck—(in Venice you saw the Austrian guns deliberately pointed
at the palaces containing them), and if you heard that all the fine pictures
in Europe were made into sand-bags to-morrow on the Austrian forts, it would
not trouble you so much as the chance of a brace or two of game less in your
own bags, in a day’s shooting. That is your national love of Art.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="52"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 52</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 35. IV.—You have
despised Nature; that is to say, all the deep and sacred sensations of
natural scenery. The French revolutionists made stables of the cathedrals of
France; you have made race-courses of the cathedrals of the earth. Your <i>one</i> conception
of pleasure is to drive in railroad carriages round their aisles, and eat off
their altars.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt12"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.12"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">12</span></a> You have put a
railroad bridge over the fall of Schaffhausen. You have tunneled the cliffs
of Lucerne by Tell’s chapel; you have destroyed the Clarens shore of the Lake
of Geneva; there is not a quiet valley in England that you have not filled
with bellowing fire; there is no particle left of English land which you have
not trampled coal ashes into<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt13"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.13"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">13</span></a>—nor any foreign city
in which the spread of your presence is not marked among its fair old streets
and happy gardens by a consuming white leprosy of new hotels and perfumers’
shops: the Alps themselves, which your own poets used to love so reverently,
you look upon as soaped poles in a bear garden, which you set yourselves to
climb, and slide down again with “shrieks of delight.” When you are past
shrieking, having no human articulate voice to say you are glad with, you
fill the quietude of their valleys with gunpowder blasts, and rush home, red
with cutaneous eruption of conceit, and voluble with convulsive hiccough of
self-satisfaction. I think nearly the two sorrowfullest spectacles I have
ever seen in humanity, taking the deep inner significance of them, are the
English mobs in the valley of Chamouni, amusing themselves with firing rusty
howitzers; and the Swiss vintagers of Zurich expressing their Christian
thanks for the gift of the vine, by assembling in knots in the “towers of the
vineyards,” and slowly loading and firing horse-pistols from morning till
evening. It is pitiful to have dim conceptions of duty; more pitiful, it
seems to me, to have conceptions like these, of mirth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="53"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 53</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 36. Lastly. You
despise compassion. There is no need of words of mine for proof of this. I
will merely print one of the newspaper paragraphs which I am in the habit of
cutting out and throwing into my store-drawer; here is one from a <i>Daily
Telegraph</i> of an early date this year (1867) (date which, though by
me carelessly left unmarked, is easily discoverable; for on the back of the
slip, there is the announcement that “yesterday the seventh of the special
services of this year was performed by the Bishop of Ripon in St. Paul’s”);
it relates only one of such facts as happen now daily; this, by chance,
having taken a form in which it came before the corner….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="54"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 54</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> “An inquiry was held
on Friday by Mr. Richards, deputy coroner, at the White Horse Tavern, Christ
Church, Spitalfields, respecting the death of Michael Collins, aged 58 years.
Mary Collins, a miserable-looking woman, said that she lived with the
deceased and his son in a room at 2, Cobb’s Court, Christ Church. Deceased
was a ‘translator’ of boots. Witness went out and bought old boots; deceased
and his son made them into good ones, and then witness sold them for what she
could get at the shops, which was very little indeed. Deceased and his son
used to work night and day to try and get a little bread and tea, and pay for
the room (2<i>s.</i> a week), so as to keep the home together. On Friday
night week, deceased got up from his bench and began to shiver. He threw down
the boots, saying, “Somebody else must finish them when I am gone, for I can
do no more.’ There was no fire, and he said, ‘I would be better if I was
warm.’ Witness therefore took two pairs of translated boots<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt14"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.14"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">14</span></a> to sell at the
shop, but she could only get 14<i>d.</i> for the two pairs, for the
people at the shop said, ‘We must have our profit.’ Witness got 14 lbs. of
coal and a little tea and bread. Her son sat up the whole night to make the
‘translations,’ to get money, but deceased died on Saturday morning. The
family never had enough to eat.—Coroner: ‘It seems to me deplorable that you
did not go into the workhouse.’ Witness: ‘We wanted the comforts of our
little home.’ a juror asked what the comforts were, for he only saw a little
straw in the corner of the room, the windows of which were broken. The
witness began to cry, and said that they had a quilt and other little things.
The deceased said he never would go into the workhouse. In summer, when the
season was good, they sometimes made as much as 10<i>s.</i> profit in a
week. They then always saved towards the next week, which was generally a bad
one. In winter they made not half so much. For three years they had been
getting from bad to worse.—Cornelius Collins said that he had assisted his
father since 1847. They used to work so far into the night that both nearly
lost their eyesight. Witness now had a film over his eyes. Five years ago
deceased applied to the parish for aid. The relieving officer gave him a
4-lb. loaf, and told him if he came again he should ‘get the stones.’<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt15"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.15"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">15</span></a> That
disgusted deceased, and he would have nothing to do with them since. They got
worse and worse until last Friday week, when they had not even a half penny
to buy a candle. Deceased then lay down on the straw, and said he could not live
till morning.—A juror: ‘You are dying of starvation yourself, and you ought
to go into the house until the summer.’ Witness: ‘If we went in we should
die. When we come out in the summer we should be like people dropped from the
sky. No one would know us, and we would not have even a room. I could work
now if I had food, for my sight would get better.’ Dr. G. P. Walker said
deceased died from syncope, from exhaustion, from want of food. The deceased
had had no bedclothes. For four months he had had nothing but bread to eat.
There was not a particle of fat in the body. There was no disease, but if
there had been medical attendance, he might have survived the syncope or
fainting. The coroner having remarked upon the painful nature of the case,
the jury returned the following verdict: ‘That deceased died from exhaustion,
from want of food and the common necessaries of life; also through want of
medical aid.’”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="55"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 55</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 37. “Why would witness
not go into the workhouse?” you ask. Well, the poor seem to have a prejudice
against the workhouse which the rich have not; for, of course, every one who
takes a pension from Government goes into the workhouse on a grand scale;<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt16"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.16"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">16</span></a> only
the workhouses for the rich do not involve the idea of work, and should be
called play-houses. But the poor like to die independently, it appears;
perhaps if we made the play-houses for them pretty and pleasant enough, or
gave them their pensions at home, and allowed them a little introductory
peculation with the public money, their minds might be reconciled to the
conditions. Meantime, here are the facts: we make our relief either so
insulting to them, or so painful, that they rather die than take it at our
hands; or, for third alternative, we leave them so untaught and foolish that
they starve like brute creatures, wild and dumb, not knowing what to do, or
what to ask. I say, you despise compassion; if you did not, such a newspaper
paragraph would be as impossible in a Christian country as a deliberate
assassination permitted in its public streets.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt17"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.17"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">17</span></a>“Christian,” did I
say? Alas, if we were but wholesomely un-Christian, it would be impossible;
it is our imaginary Christianity that helps us to commit these crimes, for we
revel and luxuriate in our faith, for the lewd sensation of it; dressing it
up, like everything else, in fiction. The dramatic Christianity of the organ
and aisle, of dawn-service and twilight-revival—the Christianity which we do
not fear to mix the mockery of, pictorially, with our play about the devil,
in our Satanellas,—Roberts,—Fausts; chanting hymns through traceried windows
for background effect, and artistically modulating the “Dio” through variation
on variation of mimicked prayer (while we distribute tracts, next day, for
the benefit of uncultivated swearers, upon what we suppose to be the
signification of the Third Commandment);—this gas-lighted, and gas-inspired,
Christianity, we are triumphant in, and draw back the hem of our robes from
the touch of the heretics who dispute it. But to do a piece of common
Christian righteousness in a plain English word or deed; to make Christian
law any rule of life, and found one National act or hope thereon,—we know too
well what our faith comes to for that! You might sooner get lightning out of
incense smoke than true action or passion out of your modern English
religion. You had better get rid of the smoke, and the organ-pipes, both;
leave them, and the Gothic windows, and the painted glass, to the
property-man; give up your carburetted hydrogen ghost in one healthy
expiration, and look after Lazarus at the door-step. For there is a true
Church wherever one hand meets another helpfully, and that is the only holy
or Mother Church which ever was, or ever shall be.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="56"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 56</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 38. All these
pleasures, then, and all these virtues, I repeat, you nationally despise. You
have, indeed, men among you who do not; by whose work, by whose strength, by
whose life, by whose death, you live, and never thank them. Your wealth, your
amusement, your pride, would all be alike impossible, but for those whom you
scorn or forget. The policeman, who is walking up and down the black lane all
night to watch the guilt you have created there, and may have his brains
beaten out, and be maimed for life, at any moment, and never be thanked; the
sailor wrestling with the sea’s rage; the quiet student poring over his book
or his vial; the common worker, without praise, and nearly without bread, fulfilling
his task as your horses drag your carts, hopeless, and spurned of all: these
are the men by whom England lives; but they are not the nation; they are only
the body and nervous force of it, acting still from old habit in a convulsive
perseverance, while the mind is gone. Our National wish and purpose are to be
amused; our National religion is the performance of church ceremonies, and
preaching of soporific truths (or untruths) to keep the mob quietly at work,
while we amuse ourselves; and the necessity for this amusement is fastening
on us as a feverous disease of parched throat and wandering eyes—senseless,
dissolute, merciless. How literally that word <i>Dis</i>-Ease, the
Negation and impossibility of Ease, expresses the entire moral state of our
English Industry and its Amusements!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="57"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 57</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 39. When men are
rightly occupied, their amusement grows out of their work, as the
color-petals out of a fruitful flower;—when they are faithfully helpful and
compassionate, all their emotions become steady, deep, perpetual, and
vivifying to the soul as the natural pulse of the body. But now, having no
true business, we pour our whole masculine energy into the false business of
money-making; and having no true emotion, we must have false emotions dressed
up for us to play with, not innocently, as children with dolls, but guiltily
and darkly, as the idolatrous Jews with their pictures on cavern walls, which
men had to dig to detect. The justice we do not execute, we mimic in the
novel and on the stage; for the beauty we destroy in nature, we substitute
the metamorphosis of the pantomime, and (the human nature of us imperatively
requiring awe and sorrow of some kind) for the noble grief we should have
borne with our fellows, and the pure tears we should have wept with them, we
gloat over the pathos of the police court, and gather the night-dew of the
grave.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="58"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 58</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 40. It is difficult to
estimate the true significance of these things; the facts are frightful
enough;—the measure of national fault involved in them is, perhaps, not as
great as it would at first seem. We permit, or cause, thousands of deaths
daily, but we mean no harm; we set fire to houses, and ravage peasants’
fields; yet we should be sorry to find we had injured anybody. We are still
kind at heart; still capable of virtue, but only as children are. Chalmers,
at the end of his long life, having had much power with the public, being
plagued in some serious matter by a reference to “public opinion,” uttered
the impatient exclamation, “The public is just a great baby!” And the reason
that I have allowed all these graver subjects of thought to mix themselves up
with an inquiry into methods of reading, is that, the more I see of our
national faults and miseries, the more they resolve themselves into
conditions of childish illiterateness, and want of education in the most
ordinary habits of thought. It is, I repeat, not vice, not selfishness, not
dullness of brain, which we have to lament; but an unreachable schoolboy’s
recklessness, only differing from the true schoolboy’s in its incapacity of
being helped, because it acknowledges no master.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="59"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 59</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 41. There is a curious
type of us given in one of the lovely, neglected works of the last of our
great painters. It is a drawing of Kirkby Lonsdale churchyard, and of its
brook, and valley, and hills, and folded morning sky beyond. And unmindful
alike of these, and of the dead who have left these for other valleys and for
other skies, a group of schoolboys have piled their little books upon a
grave, to strike them off with stones. So, also, we play with the words of
the dead that would teach us, and strike them far from us with our bitter,
reckless will; little thinking that those leaves which the wind scatters had
been piled, not only upon a gravestone, but upon the seal of an enchanted
vault—nay, the gate of a great city of sleeping kings, who would awake for
us, and walk with us, if we knew but how to call them by their names. How
often, even if we lift the marble entrance gate, do we but wander among those
old kings in their repose, and finger the robes they lie in, and stir the
crowns on their foreheads; and still they are silent to us, and seem but a
dusty imagery; because we know not the incantation of the heart that would
wake them;—which, if they once heard, they would start up to meet us in their
power of long ago, narrowly to look upon us, and consider us; and, as the
fallen kings of Hades meet the newly fallen, saying, “Art thou also become
weak as we—art thou also become one of us?” so would these kings, with their
undimmed, unshaken diadems, meet us, saying, “Art thou also become pure and
mighty of heart as we—art thou also become one of us?”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="60"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 60</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 42. Mighty of heart,
mighty of mind—“magnanimous”—to be this, is, indeed, to be great in life; to
become this increasingly, is, indeed, to “advance in life,”—in life
itself—not in the trappings of it. My friends, do you remember that old Scythian
custom, when the head of a house died? How he was dressed in his finest
dress, and set in his chariot, and carried about to his friends’ houses; and
each of them placed him at his table’s head, and all feasted in his presence?
Suppose it were offered to you, in plain words, as it is offered to you in
dire facts, that you should gain this Scythian honor, gradually, while you
yet thought yourself alive. Suppose the offer were this: You shall die
slowly; your blood shall daily grow cold, your flesh petrify, your heart beat
at last only as a rusted group of iron valves. Your life shall fade from you,
and sink through the earth into the ice of Caina; but, day by day, your body
shall be dressed more gaily, and set in higher chariots, and have more orders
on its breast-crowns on its head, if you will. Men shall bow before it, stare
and shout round it, crowd after it up and down the streets; build palaces for
it, feast with it at their tables’ heads all the night long; your soul shall
stay enough within it to know what they do, and feel the weight of the golden
dress on its shoulders, and the furrow of the crown-edge on the skull;—no
more. Would you take the offer, verbally made by the death-angel? Would the
meanest among us take it, think you? Yet practically and verily we grasp at
it, every one of us, in a measure; many of us grasp at it in its fullness of
horror. Every man accepts it, who desires to advance in life without knowing
what life is; who means only that he is to get more horses, and more footmen,
and more fortune, and more public honor, and—<i>not</i> more personal
soul. He only is advancing in life, whose heart is getting softer, whose
blood warmer, whose brain quicker, whose spirit is entering into Living
peace. And the men who have this life in them are the true lords or kings of
the earth—they, and they only. All other kingships, so far as they are true,
are only the practical issue and expression of theirs; if less than this,
they are either dramatic royalties,—costly shows, set off, indeed, with real
jewels instead of tinsel,—but still only the toys of nations; or else they
are no royalties at all, but tyrannies, or the mere active and practical
issue of national folly; for which reason I have said of them elsewhere,
“Visible governments are the toys of some nations, the diseases of others,
the harness of some, the burdens of more.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="61"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 61</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 43. But I have no
words for the wonder with which I hear Kinghood still spoken of, even among
thoughtful men, as if governed nations were a personal property, and might be
bought and sold, or otherwise acquired, as sheep, of whose flesh their king
was to feed, and whose fleece he was to gather; as if Achilles’ indignant
epithet of base kings, “people-eating,” were the constant and proper title of
all monarchs; and enlargement of a king’s dominion meant the same thing as
the increase of a private man’s estate! Kings who think so, however powerful,
can no more be the true kings of the nation than gadflies are the kings of a
horse; they suck it, and may drive it wild, but do not guide it. They, and
their courts, and their armies are, if one could see clearly, only a large
species of marsh mosquito, with bayonet proboscis and melodious,
band-mastered trumpeting in the summer air; the twilight being, perhaps,
sometimes fairer, but hardly more wholesome, for its glittering mists of
midge companies. The true kings, meanwhile, rule quietly, if at all, and hate
ruling; too many of them make “il gran rifiúto”;<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="txt18"> </a><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/28/6.html#note4.1.18"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">18</span></a> and if they do not,
the mob, as soon as they are likely to become useful to it, is pretty sure to
make <i>its</i> “gran rifiúto” of <i>them.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="62"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 62</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 44. Yet the visible
king may also be a true one, some day, if ever day comes when he will
estimate his dominion by the <i>force</i> of it,—not the
geographical boundaries. It matters very little whether Trent cuts you a
cantel out here, or Rhine rounds you a castle less there. But it does matter
to you, king of men, whether you can verily say to this man, “Go,” and he
goeth; and to another, “Come,” and he cometh. Whether you can turn your
people, as you can Trent—and where it is that you bid them come, and where
go. It matters to you, king of men, whether your people hate you, and die by
you, or love you, and live by you. You may measure your dominion by
multitudes better than by miles; and count degrees of love latitude, not
from, but to, a wonderfully warm and indefinite equator.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="63"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 63</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 45. Measure! nay, you
cannot measure. Who shall measure the difference between the power of those
who “do and teach,” and who are greatest in the kingdoms of earth, as of
heaven—and the power of those who undo, and consume—whose power, at the
fullest, is only the power of the moth and the rust? Strange! to think how
the Moth-kings lay up treasures for the moth; and the Rusk-kings, who are to
their peoples’ strength as rust to armor, lay up treasures for the rust; and
the Robber-kings, treasures for the robber; but how few kings have ever laid
up treasures that needed no guarding—treasures of which, the more thieves
there were, the better! Broidered robe, only to be rent; helm and sword, only
to be dimmed; jewel and gold, only to be scattered;—there have been three
kinds of kings who have gathered these. Suppose there ever should arise a
Fourth order of kings, who had read, in some obscure writing of long ago,
that there was a Fourth kind of treasure, which the jewel and gold could not
equal, neither should it be valued with pure gold. A web made fair in the
weaving, by Athena’s shuttle; an armor, forged in divine fire by Vulcanian
force—a gold to be mined in the sun’s red heart, where he sets over the
Delphian cliffs;—deep-pictured tissue, impenetrable armor, potable gold!—the
three great Angels of Conduct, Toil, and Thought, still calling to us, and
waiting at the posts of our doors, to lead us, with their winged power, and
guide us, with their unerring eyes, by the path which no fowl knoweth, and
which the vulture’s eye has not seen! Suppose kings should ever arise, who
heard and believed this word, and at last gathered and brought forth
treasures of—Wisdom—for their people?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="64"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 64</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 46. Think what an
amazing business that would be! How inconceivable, in the state of our
present national wisdom! That we should bring up our peasants to a book
exercise instead of a bayonet exercise!—organize, drill, maintain with pay,
and good generalship, armies of thinkers, instead of armies of stabbers!—find
national amusement in reading-rooms as well as rifle—grounds; give prizes for
a fair shot at a fact, as well as for a leaden splash on a target. What an
absurd idea it seems, put fairly in words, that the wealth of the capitalists
of civilized nations should ever come to support literature instead of war!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="65"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 65</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 47. Have yet patience
with me, while I read you a single sentence out of the only book, properly to
be called a book, that I have yet written myself, the one that will stand (if
anything stand) surest and longest of all work of mine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="66"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 66</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> “It is one very awful
form of the operation of wealth in Europe that it is entirely capitalists’
wealth that supports unjust wars. Just wars do not need so much money to
support them; for most of the men who wage such, wage them gratis; but for an
unjust war, men’s bodies and souls have both to be bought; and the best tools
of war for them besides, which make such war costly to the maximum; not to
speak of the cost of base fear, and angry suspicion, between nations which
have not grace nor honesty enough in all their multitudes to buy an hour’s
peace of mind with; as, at present, France and England, purchasing of each
other ten millions’ sterling worth of consternation, annually (a remarkably
light crop, half thorns and half aspen leaves, sown, reaped, and granaried by
the ‘science’ of the modern political economist, teaching covetousness
instead of truth). And, all unjust war being supportable, if not by pillage
of the enemy, only by loans from capitalists, these loans are repaid by
subsequent taxation of the people, who appear to have no will in the matter,
the capitalists’ will being the primary root of the war; but its real root is
the covetousness of the whole nation, rendering it incapable of faith,
frankness, or justice, and bringing about, therefore, in due time, his own
separate loss and punishment to each person.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="67"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 67</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 48. France and England
literally, observe, buy panic of each other; they pay, each of them, for ten
thousand thousand pounds’ worth of terror, a year. Now suppose, instead of
buying these ten millions’ worth of panic annually, they made up their minds
to be at peace with each other, and buy ten millions’ worth of knowledge
annually; and that each nation spent its ten thousand thousand pounds a year
in founding royal libraries, royal art galleries, royal museums, royal
gardens, and places of rest. Might it not be better somewhat for both French
and English?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="68"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 68</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 49. It will be long,
yet, before that comes to pass. Nevertheless, I hope it will not be long
before royal or national libraries will be founded in every considerable
city, with a royal series of books in them; the same series in every one of
them, chosen books, the best in every kind, prepared for that national series
in the most perfect way possible; their text printed all on leaves of equal
size, broad of margin, and divided into pleasant volumes, light in the hand,
beautiful, and strong, and thorough as examples of binders’ work; and that
these great libraries will be accessible to all clean and orderly persons at
all times of the day and evening; strict law being enforced for this
cleanliness and quietness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="69"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 69</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 50. I could shape for
you other plans for art galleries, and for natural history galleries, and for
many precious—many, it seems to me, needful—things; but this book plan is the
easiest and needfullest, and would prove a considerable tonic to what we call
our British constitution, which has fallen dropsical of late, and has an evil
thirst, and evil hunger, and wants healthier feeding. You have got its corn
laws repealed for it; try if you cannot get corn laws established for it
dealing in a better bread;—bread made of that old enchanted Arabian grain,
the Sesame, which opens doors;—doors not of robbers’, but of Kings’
Treasuries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="70"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 70</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Note to
§30.—Respecting the increase of rent by the deaths of the poor, for evidence
of which see the preface to the Medical officers’ report to the Privy
Council, just published, there are suggestions in its preface which will make
some stir among us, I fancy, respecting which let me note these points
following:—<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="71"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 71</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> There are two theories
on the subject of land now abroad, and in contention; both false.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="72"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 72</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The first is that, by
Heavenly law, there have always existed, and must continue to exist, a
certain number of hereditarily sacred persons to whom the earth, air, and
water of the world belong, as personal property; of which earth, air, and
water, these persons may, at their pleasure, permit, or forbid, the rest of
the human race to eat, breathe, or to drink. This theory is not for many
years longer tenable. The adverse theory is that a division of the land of
the world among the mob of the world would immediately elevate the said mob
into sacred personages; that houses would then build themselves, and corn
grow of itself; and that everybody would be able to live, without doing any
work for his living. This theory would also be found highly untenable in
practice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="73"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 73</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> It will, however,
require some rough experiments and rougher catastrophes, before the
generality of persons will be convinced that no law concerning anything,
least of all concerning land, for either holding or dividing it, or renting
it high, or renting it low—would be of the smallest ultimate use to the
people—so long as the general contest for life, and for the means of life,
remains one of mere brutal competition. That contest, in an unprincipled
nation, will take one deadly form or another, whatever laws you make against
it. For instance, it would be an entirely wholesome law for England, if it
could be carried, that maximum limits should be assigned to incomes according
to classes; and that every nobleman’s income should be paid to him as a fixed
salary or pension by the nation; and not squeezed by him in variable sums, at
discretion, out of the tenants of his land. But if you could get such a law
passed to-morrow, and if, which would be farther necessary, you could fix the
value of the assigned incomes by making a given weight of pure bread for a
given sum, a twelvemonth would not pass before another currency would have
been tacitly established, and the power of accumulative wealth would have
reasserted itself in some other article, or some other imaginary sign. There
is only one cure for public distress—and that is public education, directed
to make men thoughtful, merciful, and just. There are, indeed, many laws
conceivable which would gradually better and strengthen the national temper;
but, for the most part, they are such as the national temper must be much
bettered before it would bear. A nation in its youth may be helped by laws,
as a weak child by backboards, but when it is old it cannot that way
straighten its crooked spine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="74"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 74</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And besides, the
problem of land, at its worst, is a bye one; distribute the earth as you
will, the principal question remains inexorable,—Who is to dig it? Which of
us, in brief words, is to do the hard and dirty work for the rest—and for
what pay? Who is to do the pleasant and clean work, and for what pay? Who is
to do no work, and for what pay? And there are curious moral and religious
questions connected with these. How far is it lawful to suck a portion of the
soul out of a great many persons, in order to put the abstracted psychical
quantities together and make one very beautiful or ideal soul? If we had to
deal with mere blood, instead of spirit (and the thing might literally be
done—as it has been done with infants before now)—so that it were possible by
taking a certain quantity of blood from the arms of a given number of the
mob, and putting it all into one person, to make a more azure blooded
gentleman of him, the thing would of course be managed; but secretly, I
should conceive. But now, because it is brain and soul that we abstract, not
visible blood, it can be done quite openly, and we live, we gentlemen, on
delicatest prey, after the manner of weasels; that is to say, we keep a
certain number of clowns digging and ditching, and generally stupefied, in order
that we, being fed gratis, may have all the thinking and feeling to
ourselves. Yet there is a great deal to be said for this. A highly-bred and
trained English, French, Austrian, or Italian gentleman (much more a lady) is
a great production,—a better production than most statues; being beautifully
colored as well as shaped, and plus all the brains; a glorious thing to look
at, a wonderful thing to talk to; and you cannot have it, any more than a
pyramid or a church, but by sacrifice of much contributed life. And it is,
perhaps, better to build a beautiful human creature than a beautiful dome or
steeple—and more delightful to look up reverently to a creature far above us,
than to a wall; only the beautiful human creature will have some duties to do
in return—duties of living belfry and rampart—of which presently.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="75"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 75</span></i></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-padding-alt: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 600px;">
<tbody>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.1"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
1. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
lecture was given December 6, 1864, at Rusholme Town Hall, Manchester, in aid
of a library fund for the Rusholme Institute. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.2"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
2. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
this sentence carefully, and compare the “Queen of the Air,” [Section]
106. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.3"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
3. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2
Peter, iii. 5–7. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.4"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
4. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Compare
the 13th Letter in “Time and Tide.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.5"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
5. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modern
“education” for the most part signifies giving people the faculty of thinking
wrong on every conceivable subject of importance to them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.6"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
6. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Inferno,”
xxiii, 125, 126; xix. 49, 50.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.7"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
7. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Compare
¶13 above. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.8"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
8. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">See
note at end of lecture. I have put it in large type, because the course of
matters since it was written has made it perhaps better worth attention. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.9"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
9. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Since
this was written, the answer has become definitely—No; we have surrendered
the field of Arctic discovery to the Continental nations, as being ourselves
too poor to pay for ships. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.10"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
10. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I
state this fact without Professor Owen’s permission: which of course he could
not with propriety have granted, had I asked it; but I consider it so
important that the public should be aware of the fact that I do what seems to
be right, though rude. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.11"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
11. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That
was our real idea of “Free Trade”—“All the trade to myself.” You find now
that by “competition” other people can manage to sell something as well as
you—and now we call for Protection again. Wretches! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.12"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
12. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I
meant that the beautiful places of the world—Switzerland, Italy, South Germany,
and so on—are, indeed, the truest cathedrals—places to be reverent in, and to
worship in; and that we only care to drive through them, and to eat and drink
at their most sacred places. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.13"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
13. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I
was singularly struck, some years ago, by finding all the river shore at
Richmond, in Yorkshire, black in its earth, from the mere drift of soot-laden
air from places many miles away. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.14"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
14. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One
of the things which we must very resolutely enforce, for the good of all
classes, in our future arrangements, must be that they wear no “translated”
articles of dress. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.15"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
15. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
abbreviation of the penalty of useless labor is curiously coincident in
verbal form with a certain passage which some of us may remember. It may,
perhaps, be well to preserve beside this paragraph another cutting out of my
store-drawer, from the Morning Post, of about a parallel date, Friday, March
10th, 1865:—“The <i>salons</i> of Mme. C——, who did the honors with
clever imitative grace and elegance, were crowded with princes, dukes, marquises,
and counts—in fact, with the same <i>male</i> company as one meets
at the parties of the Princess Metternich and Madame Drouyn de Lhuys. Some
English peers and members of Parliament were present, and appeared to enjoy
the animated and dazzlingly improper scene. On the second floor the
supper-tables were loaded with every delicacy of the season. That your
readers may form some idea of the dainty fare of the Parisian demi-monde, I
copy the menu of the supper, which was served to all the guests (about 200)
seated at four o’clock. Choice Yquem, Johannisberg, Lafitte, Tokay, and
champagne of the finest vintages were served most lavishly throughout the
morning. After supper dancing was resumed with increased animation, and the
ball terminated with a <i>chaîne diabolique</i>and a <i>cancan
d’enfer</i> at seven in the morning. (Morning-service—‘Ere the fresh
lawns appeared, under the opening eyelids of the Morn.—’) Here is the menu:
‘Consommé de volaille à la Bagration; 16 hors-d’oeœuvres variés. Bouchées, à
la Talleyrand. Saumons froids, sauce Ravigote. Filets de boeœuf en Bellevue,
timbales milanaises chaudfroid de gibier. Dindes truffées. Pâtés de foies
gras, buissons d’écrevisses, salades vénétiennes, gelées blanches aux fruits,
gateaux mancini, parisiens et parisiennes. Fromages glacés. Ananas.
Dessert.’” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.16"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
16. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Please
observe this statement, and think of it, and consider how it happens that a
poor old woman will be ashamed to take a shilling a week from the country—but
no one is ashamed to take a pension of a thousand a year.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.17"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
17. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> I
am heartily glad to see such a paper as the Pall Mall Gazette established;
for the power of the press in the hands of highly educated men, in
independent position, and of honest purpose, may, indeed, become all that it
has been hitherto vainly vaunted to be. Its editor will, therefore, I doubt
not, pardon me, in that, by very reason of my respect for the journal, I do
not let pass unnoticed an article in its third number, page 5, which was
wrong in every word of it, with the intense wrongness which only an honest
man can achieve who has taken a false turn of thought in the outset, and is
following it, regardless of consequences. It contained at the end this
notable passage:—<br />
“The bread of affliction, and the water of affliction—aye, and the
bedsteads and blankets of affliction, are the very utmost that the law ought
to give to <i>outcasts merely as outcasts.”</i>I merely put beside this
expression of the gentlemanly mind of England in 1865, a part of the message
which Isaiah was ordered to “lift up his voice like a trumpet” in declaring
to the gentlemen of his day: “Ye fast for strife, and to smite with the fist
of wickedness. Is not this the fast that I have chosen, to deal thy bread to
the hungry, and that thou bring the poor <i>that are cast out</i> (margin,
‘afflicted’) to <i>thy</i> house?” The falsehood on which the
writer had mentally founded himself, as previously stated by him, was this:
“To confound the functions of the dispensers of the poor-rates which those of
the dispensers of a charitable institution is a great and pernicious error.”
This sentence is so accurately and exquisitely wrong, that its substance must
be thus reversed in our minds before we can deal with any existing problem of
national distress. “To understand that the dispensers of the poor-rates are
the almoners of the nation, and should distribute its alms with a gentleness
and freedom of hand as much greater and franker than that possible to
individual charity, as the collective national wisdom and power may be
supposed greater than those of any single person, is the foundation of all
law respecting pauperism.” (Since this was written the Pall Mall Gazette has
become a mere party paper—like the rest; but it writes well, and does more
good than mischief on the whole.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="note4.1.18"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
18. </span></b></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
great renunciation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unit
III: Poetry<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<h3 align="center" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LUCY GRAY OR, SOLITUDE - William
Wordsworth<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> OFT I had heard of Lucy Gray:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And, when I crossed the wild,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> I chanced to see at break of day<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The solitary child.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> No mate, no comrade Lucy knew;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> She dwelt on a wide moor,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> --The sweetest thing that ever grew<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Beside a human door!<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> You yet may spy the fawn at play,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The hare upon the green; 10<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But the sweet face of Lucy Gray<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Will never more be seen.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> "To-night will be a stormy night--<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> You to the town must go;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And take a lantern, Child, to light<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Your mother through the snow."<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> "That, Father! will I gladly do:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 'Tis scarcely afternoon--<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The minster-clock has just struck two,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And yonder is the moon!" 20<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> At this the Father raised his hook,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And snapped a faggot-band;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He plied his work;--and Lucy took<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The lantern in her hand.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Not blither is the mountain roe:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> With many a wanton stroke<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Her feet disperse the powdery snow,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That rises up like smoke.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The storm came on before its time:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> She wandered up and down; 30<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And many a hill did Lucy climb:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But never reached the town.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The wretched parents all that night<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Went shouting far and wide;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But there was neither sound nor sight<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To serve them for a guide.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> At day-break on a hill they stood<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That overlooked the moor;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And thence they saw the bridge of wood,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A furlong from their door. 40<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> They wept--and, turning homeward, cried,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> "In heaven we all shall meet;"<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> --When in the snow the mother spied<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The print of Lucy's feet.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Then downwards from the steep hill's edge<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> They tracked the footmarks small;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And through the broken hawthorn hedge,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And by the long stone-wall;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And then an open field they crossed:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The marks were still the same; 50<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> They tracked them on, nor ever lost;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And to the bridge they came.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> They followed from the snowy bank<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Those footmarks, one by one,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Into the middle of the plank;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And further there were none!<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> --Yet some maintain that to this day<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> She is a living child;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That you may see sweet Lucy Gray<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Upon the lonesome wild. 60<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> O'er rough and smooth she trips along,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And never looks behind;<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And sings a solitary song<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That whistles in the wind.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1799.<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wordsworth
was a defining member of the English Romantic Movement. Like other Romantics,
Wordsworth’s personality and poetry were deeply influenced by his love of
nature, especially by the sights and scenes of the Lake Country, in which he
spent most of his mature life. A profoundly earnest and sincere thinker, he
displayed a high seriousness tempered with tenderness and a love of simplicity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hdg"><b><span style="border: none 1.0pt; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">The
Rime of the Ancient Mariner</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By Samuel Taylor
Coleridge<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART I</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is an ancient Mariner, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And he stoppeth one of three. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Bridegroom's doors are opened wide, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I am next of kin; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The guests are met, the feast is set: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">May'st hear the merry din.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He holds him with his skinny hand, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'There was a ship,' quoth he. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Eftsoons his hand dropt he. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He holds him with his glittering eye— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Wedding-Guest stood still, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And listens like a three years' child: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Mariner hath his will. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Wedding-Guest sat on a stone: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He cannot choose but hear; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And thus spake on that ancient man, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The bright-eyed Mariner. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'The ship was cheered, the harbour cleared, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Merrily did we drop <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Below the kirk, below the hill, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Below the lighthouse top. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Sun came up upon the left, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Out of the sea came he! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And he shone bright, and on the right <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Went down into the sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Higher and higher every day, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Till over the mast at noon—' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Wedding-Guest here beat his breast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For he heard the loud bassoon. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The bride hath paced into the hall, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Red as a rose is she; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nodding their heads before her goes <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The merry minstrelsy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Wedding-Guest he beat his breast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet he cannot choose but hear; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And thus spake on that ancient man, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The bright-eyed Mariner. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And now the STORM-BLAST came, and he <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was tyrannous and strong: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He struck with his o'ertaking wings, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And chased us south along. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With sloping masts and dipping prow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As who pursued with yell and blow <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Still treads the shadow of his foe, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And forward bends his head, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ship drove fast, loud roared the blast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And southward aye we fled. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And now there came both mist and snow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And it grew wondrous cold: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And ice, mast-high, came floating by, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As green as emerald. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And through the drifts the snowy clifts <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Did send a dismal sheen: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor shapes of men nor beasts we ken— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ice was all between. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ice was here, the ice was there, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ice was all around: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It cracked and growled, and roared and howled, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like noises in a swound! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At length did cross an Albatross, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thorough the fog it came; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As if it had been a Christian soul, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We hailed it in God's name. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It ate the food it ne'er had eat, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And round and round it flew. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ice did split with a thunder-fit; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The helmsman steered us through! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And a good south wind sprung up behind; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Albatross did follow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And every day, for food or play, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Came to the mariner's hollo! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It perched for vespers nine; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whiles all the night, through fog-smoke white, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Glimmered the white Moon-shine.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'God save thee, ancient Mariner! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From the fiends, that plague thee thus!— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Why look'st thou so?'—With my cross-bow <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I shot the ALBATROSS. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART II</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Sun now rose upon the right: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Out of the sea came he, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Still hid in mist, and on the left <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Went down into the sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the good south wind still blew behind, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But no sweet bird did follow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor any day for food or play <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Came to the mariner's hollo! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I had done a hellish thing, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And it would work 'em woe: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For all averred, I had killed the bird <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That made the breeze to blow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ah wretch! said they, the bird to slay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That made the breeze to blow! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor dim nor red, like God's own head, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The glorious Sun uprist: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then all averred, I had killed the bird <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That brought the fog and mist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That bring the fog and mist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The furrow followed free; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We were the first that ever burst <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Into that silent sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Twas sad as sad could be; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And we did speak only to break <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The silence of the sea! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All in a hot and copper sky, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The bloody Sun, at noon, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Right up above the mast did stand, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">No bigger than the Moon. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Day after day, day after day, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We stuck, nor breath nor motion; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As idle as a painted ship <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon a painted ocean. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Water, water, every where, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all the boards did shrink; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Water, water, every where, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor any drop to drink. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The very deep did rot: O Christ! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That ever this should be! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon the slimy sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">About, about, in reel and rout <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The death-fires danced at night; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The water, like a witch's oils, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Burnt green, and blue and white. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And some in dreams assurèd were <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of the Spirit that plagued us so; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nine fathom deep he had followed us <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From the land of mist and snow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And every tongue, through utter drought, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was withered at the root; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We could not speak, no more than if <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We had been choked with soot. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ah! well a-day! what evil looks <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Had I from old and young! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Instead of the cross, the Albatross <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">About my neck was hung. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART III</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There passed a weary time. Each throat <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was parched, and glazed each eye. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A weary time! a weary time! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How glazed each weary eye, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When looking westward, I beheld <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A something in the sky. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At first it seemed a little speck, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And then it seemed a mist; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It moved and moved, and took at last <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A certain shape, I wist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A speck, a mist, a shape, I wist! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And still it neared and neared: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As if it dodged a water-sprite, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It plunged and tacked and veered. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With throats unslaked, with black lips baked, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We could nor laugh nor wail; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Through utter drought all dumb we stood! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I bit my arm, I sucked the blood, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And cried, A sail! a sail! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With throats unslaked, with black lips baked, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Agape they heard me call: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gramercy! they for joy did grin, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all at once their breath drew in. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As they were drinking all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">See! see! (I cried) she tacks no more! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hither to work us weal; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Without a breeze, without a tide, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">She steadies with upright keel! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The western wave was all a-flame. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The day was well nigh done! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Almost upon the western wave <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rested the broad bright Sun; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When that strange shape drove suddenly <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Betwixt us and the Sun. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And straight the Sun was flecked with bars, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(Heaven's Mother send us grace!) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As if through a dungeon-grate he peered <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With broad and burning face. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alas! (thought I, and my heart beat loud) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How fast she nears and nears! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Are those <i>her</i> sails that glance in the
Sun, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like restless gossameres? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Are those her <i>ribs</i> through which the
Sun <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Did peer, as through a grate? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And is that Woman all her crew? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is that a DEATH? and are there two? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is DEATH that woman's mate? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> lips
were red, <i>her</i> looks were free, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her locks were yellow as gold: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her skin was as white as leprosy, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Night-mare LIFE-IN-DEATH was she, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who thicks man's blood with cold. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The naked hulk alongside came, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the twain were casting dice; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'The game is done! I've won! I've won!' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quoth she, and whistles thrice. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Sun's rim dips; the stars rush out; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At one stride comes the dark; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With far-heard whisper, o'er the sea, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Off shot the spectre-bark. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We listened and looked sideways up! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fear at my heart, as at a cup, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My life-blood seemed to sip! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The stars were dim, and thick the night, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The steersman's face by his lamp gleamed white; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From the sails the dew did drip— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Till clomb above the eastern bar <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The hornèd Moon, with one bright star <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Within the nether tip. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One after one, by the star-dogged Moon, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Too quick for groan or sigh, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each turned his face with a ghastly pang, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And cursed me with his eye. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Four times fifty living men, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(And I heard nor sigh nor groan) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With heavy thump, a lifeless lump, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They dropped down one by one. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The souls did from their bodies fly,— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They fled to bliss or woe! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And every soul, it passed me by, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like the whizz of my cross-bow! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART IV</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'I fear thee, ancient Mariner! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I fear thy skinny hand! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And thou art long, and lank, and brown, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As is the ribbed sea-sand. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I fear thee and thy glittering eye, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And thy skinny hand, so brown.'— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fear not, fear not, thou Wedding-Guest! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This body dropt not down. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alone, alone, all, all alone, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alone on a wide wide sea! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And never a saint took pity on <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My soul in agony. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The many men, so beautiful! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And they all dead did lie: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And a thousand thousand slimy things <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lived on; and so did I. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I looked upon the rotting sea, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And drew my eyes away; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I looked upon the rotting deck, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And there the dead men lay. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I looked to heaven, and tried to pray; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But or ever a prayer had gusht, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A wicked whisper came, and made <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My heart as dry as dust. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I closed my lids, and kept them close, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the balls like pulses beat; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lay dead like a load on my weary eye, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the dead were at my feet. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The cold sweat melted from their limbs, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor rot nor reek did they: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The look with which they looked on me <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Had never passed away. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">An orphan's curse would drag to hell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A spirit from on high; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But oh! more horrible than that <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is the curse in a dead man's eye! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Seven days, seven nights, I saw that curse, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And yet I could not die. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The moving Moon went up the sky, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And no where did abide: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Softly she was going up, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And a star or two beside— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her beams bemocked the sultry main, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like April hoar-frost spread; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But where the ship's huge shadow lay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The charmèd water burnt alway <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A still and awful red. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beyond the shadow of the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I watched the water-snakes: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They moved in tracks of shining white, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And when they reared, the elfish light <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fell off in hoary flakes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Within the shadow of the ship <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I watched their rich attire: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blue, glossy green, and velvet black, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They coiled and swam; and every track <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was a flash of golden fire. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O happy living things! no tongue <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Their beauty might declare: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A spring of love gushed from my heart, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I blessed them unaware: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sure my kind saint took pity on me, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I blessed them unaware. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The self-same moment I could pray; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And from my neck so free <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Albatross fell off, and sank <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like lead into the sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART V</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oh sleep! it is a gentle thing, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beloved from pole to pole! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To Mary Queen the praise be given! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">She sent the gentle sleep from Heaven, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That slid into my soul. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The silly buckets on the deck, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That had so long remained, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I dreamt that they were filled with dew; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And when I awoke, it rained. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My lips were wet, my throat was cold, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My garments all were dank; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sure I had drunken in my dreams, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And still my body drank. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I moved, and could not feel my limbs: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I was so light—almost <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I thought that I had died in sleep, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And was a blessed ghost. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And soon I heard a roaring wind: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It did not come anear; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But with its sound it shook the sails, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That were so thin and sere. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The upper air burst into life! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And a hundred fire-flags sheen, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To and fro they were hurried about! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And to and fro, and in and out, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The wan stars danced between. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the coming wind did roar more loud, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the sails did sigh like sedge, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the rain poured down from one black cloud; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Moon was at its edge. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The thick black cloud was cleft, and still <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Moon was at its side: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like waters shot from some high crag, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The lightning fell with never a jag, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A river steep and wide. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The loud wind never reached the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet now the ship moved on! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beneath the lightning and the Moon <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The dead men gave a groan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor spake, nor moved their eyes; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It had been strange, even in a dream, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To have seen those dead men rise. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The helmsman steered, the ship moved on; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet never a breeze up-blew; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The mariners all 'gan work the ropes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where they were wont to do; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They raised their limbs like lifeless tools— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We were a ghastly crew. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The body of my brother's son <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stood by me, knee to knee: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The body and I pulled at one rope, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But he said nought to me. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'I fear thee, ancient Mariner!' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be calm, thou Wedding-Guest! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Twas not those souls that fled in pain, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which to their corses came again, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But a troop of spirits blest: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For when it dawned—they dropped their arms, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And clustered round the mast; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sweet sounds rose slowly through their mouths, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And from their bodies passed. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Around, around, flew each sweet sound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then darted to the Sun; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Slowly the sounds came back again, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Now mixed, now one by one. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sometimes a-dropping from the sky <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I heard the sky-lark sing; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sometimes all little birds that are, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How they seemed to fill the sea and air <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With their sweet jargoning! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And now 'twas like all instruments, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Now like a lonely flute; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And now it is an angel's song, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That makes the heavens be mute. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It ceased; yet still the sails made on <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A pleasant noise till noon, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A noise like of a hidden brook <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the leafy month of June, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That to the sleeping woods all night <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Singeth a quiet tune. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Till noon we quietly sailed on, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet never a breeze did breathe: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Slowly and smoothly went the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Moved onward from beneath. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Under the keel nine fathom deep, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From the land of mist and snow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The spirit slid: and it was he <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That made the ship to go. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sails at noon left off their tune, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the ship stood still also. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Sun, right up above the mast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Had fixed her to the ocean: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But in a minute she 'gan stir, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With a short uneasy motion— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Backwards and forwards half her length <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With a short uneasy motion. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then like a pawing horse let go, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">She made a sudden bound: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It flung the blood into my head, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I fell down in a swound. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How long in that same fit I lay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I have not to declare; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But ere my living life returned, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I heard and in my soul discerned <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Two voices in the air. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Is it he?' quoth one, 'Is this the man? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By him who died on cross, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With his cruel bow he laid full low <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The harmless Albatross. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The spirit who bideth by himself <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the land of mist and snow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He loved the bird that loved the man <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who shot him with his bow.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The other was a softer voice, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As soft as honey-dew: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quoth he, 'The man hath penance done, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And penance more will do.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART VI</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First Voice</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'But tell me, tell me! speak again, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thy soft response renewing— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What makes that ship drive on so fast? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the ocean doing?' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second Voice</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Still as a slave before his lord, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ocean hath no blast; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His great bright eye most silently <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Up to the Moon is cast— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If he may know which way to go; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For she guides him smooth or grim. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">See, brother, see! how graciously <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">She looketh down on him.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First Voice</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'But why drives on that ship so fast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Without or wave or wind?' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second Voice</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'The air is cut away before, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And closes from behind. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fly, brother, fly! more high, more high! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or we shall be belated: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For slow and slow that ship will go, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When the Mariner's trance is abated.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I woke, and we were sailing on <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As in a gentle weather: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Twas night, calm night, the moon was high; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The dead men stood together. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All stood together on the deck, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For a charnel-dungeon fitter: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All fixed on me their stony eyes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That in the Moon did glitter. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The pang, the curse, with which they died, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Had never passed away: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I could not draw my eyes from theirs, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor turn them up to pray. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And now this spell was snapt: once more <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I viewed the ocean green, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And looked far forth, yet little saw <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of what had else been seen— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like one, that on a lonesome road <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Doth walk in fear and dread, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And having once turned round walks on, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And turns no more his head; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Because he knows, a frightful fiend <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Doth close behind him tread. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But soon there breathed a wind on me, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor sound nor motion made: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Its path was not upon the sea, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In ripple or in shade. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It raised my hair, it fanned my cheek <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like a meadow-gale of spring— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It mingled strangely with my fears, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet it felt like a welcoming. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet she sailed softly too: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sweetly, sweetly blew the breeze— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">On me alone it blew. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oh! dream of joy! is this indeed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The light-house top I see? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is this the hill? is this the kirk? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is this mine own countree? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We drifted o'er the harbour-bar, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I with sobs did pray— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O let me be awake, my God! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or let me sleep alway. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The harbour-bay was clear as glass, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So smoothly it was strewn! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And on the bay the moonlight lay, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the shadow of the Moon. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The rock shone bright, the kirk no less, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That stands above the rock: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The moonlight steeped in silentness <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The steady weathercock. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the bay was white with silent light, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Till rising from the same, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Full many shapes, that shadows were, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In crimson colours came. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A little distance from the prow <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Those crimson shadows were: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I turned my eyes upon the deck— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oh, Christ! what saw I there! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each corse lay flat, lifeless and flat, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And, by the holy rood! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A man all light, a seraph-man, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">On every corse there stood. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This seraph-band, each waved his hand: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It was a heavenly sight! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They stood as signals to the land, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each one a lovely light; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This seraph-band, each waved his hand, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">No voice did they impart— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">No voice; but oh! the silence sank <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like music on my heart. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But soon I heard the dash of oars, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I heard the Pilot's cheer; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My head was turned perforce away <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And I saw a boat appear. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Pilot and the Pilot's boy, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I heard them coming fast: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dear Lord in Heaven! it was a joy <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The dead men could not blast. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I saw a third—I heard his voice: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is the Hermit good! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He singeth loud his godly hymns <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That he makes in the wood. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He'll shrieve my soul, he'll wash away <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Albatross's blood. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PART VII</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This Hermit good lives in that wood <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which slopes down to the sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How loudly his sweet voice he rears! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He loves to talk with marineres <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That come from a far countree. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He kneels at morn, and noon, and eve— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He hath a cushion plump: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is the moss that wholly hides <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The rotted old oak-stump. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The skiff-boat neared: I heard them talk, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Why, this is strange, I trow! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where are those lights so many and fair, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That signal made but now?' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Strange, by my faith!' the Hermit said— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'And they answered not our cheer! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The planks looked warped! and see those sails, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How thin they are and sere! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I never saw aught like to them, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unless perchance it were <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Brown skeletons of leaves that lag <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My forest-brook along; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When the ivy-tod is heavy with snow, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And the owlet whoops to the wolf below, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That eats the she-wolf's young.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Dear Lord! it hath a fiendish look— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(The Pilot made reply) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I am a-feared'—'Push on, push on!' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Said the Hermit cheerily. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The boat came closer to the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But I nor spake nor stirred; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The boat came close beneath the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And straight a sound was heard. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Under the water it rumbled on, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Still louder and more dread: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It reached the ship, it split the bay; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ship went down like lead. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stunned by that loud and dreadful sound, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which sky and ocean smote, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Like one that hath been seven days drowned <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My body lay afloat; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But swift as dreams, myself I found <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Within the Pilot's boat. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon the whirl, where sank the ship, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The boat spun round and round; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all was still, save that the hill <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was telling of the sound. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I moved my lips—the Pilot shrieked <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And fell down in a fit; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The holy Hermit raised his eyes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And prayed where he did sit. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I took the oars: the Pilot's boy, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who now doth crazy go, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Laughed loud and long, and all the while <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His eyes went to and fro. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Ha! ha!' quoth he, 'full plain I see, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Devil knows how to row.' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And now, all in my own countree, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I stood on the firm land! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Hermit stepped forth from the boat, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And scarcely he could stand. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'O shrieve me, shrieve me, holy man!' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Hermit crossed his brow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Say quick,' quoth he, 'I bid thee say— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What manner of man art thou?' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forthwith this frame of mine was wrenched <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With a woful agony, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which forced me to begin my tale; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And then it left me free. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Since then, at an uncertain hour, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That agony returns: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And till my ghastly tale is told, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This heart within me burns. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I pass, like night, from land to land; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I have strange power of speech; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That moment that his face I see, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I know the man that must hear me: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To him my tale I teach. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What loud uproar bursts from that door! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The wedding-guests are there: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But in the garden-bower the bride <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And bride-maids singing are: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And hark the little vesper bell, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which biddeth me to prayer! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O Wedding-Guest! this soul hath been <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alone on a wide wide sea: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So lonely 'twas, that God himself <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Scarce seemèd there to be. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O sweeter than the marriage-feast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Tis sweeter far to me, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To walk together to the kirk <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With a goodly company!— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To walk together to the kirk, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And all together pray, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">While each to his great Father bends, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Old men, and babes, and loving friends <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And youths and maidens gay! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Farewell, farewell! but this I tell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To thee, thou Wedding-Guest! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He prayeth well, who loveth well <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Both man and bird and beast. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He prayeth best, who loveth best <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">All things both great and small; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For the dear God who loveth us, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He made and loveth all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Mariner, whose eye is bright, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whose beard with age is hoar, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is gone: and now the Wedding-Guest <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Turned from the bridegroom's door. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He went like one that hath been stunned, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And is of sense forlorn: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A sadder and a wiser man, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">He rose the morrow morn.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ozymandias<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By Shelley<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<h2 style="background: #FCF9F9; margin-bottom: 12.6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.6pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h2>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I met a traveller from an antique land<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who said: “Two vast and trunkless legs of stone<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stand in the desert . . . Near them, on the sand,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tell that its sculptor well those passions read<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And on the pedestal these words appear:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‘My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!'<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nothing beside remains. Round the decay<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare<o:p></o:p></span></pre>
<pre style="background: #FCF9F9; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.15pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 15.15pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The lone and level sands stretch far away.”</span><span class="hdg"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></pre>
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<span class="hdg"><b><span style="border: none 1.0pt; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;">Ode to a Nightingale</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
John Keats<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My heart aches, and a
drowsy numbness pains<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> My
sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or emptied some dull
opiate to the drains<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> One
minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'Tis not through envy
of thy happy lot,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But
being too happy in thine happiness,—<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
some melodious plot<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Of
beechen green, and shadows numberless,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Singest of summer in full-throated ease.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O, for a draught of
vintage! that hath been<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Cool'd
a long age in the deep-delved earth,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tasting of Flora and
the country green,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Dance,
and Provençal song, and sunburnt mirth!<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O for a beaker full of
the warm South,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Full
of the true, the blushful Hippocrene,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
With beaded bubbles winking at the brim,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And
purple-stained mouth;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> That
I might drink, and leave the world unseen,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
And with thee fade away into the forest dim:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fade far away,
dissolve, and quite forget<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What
thou among the leaves hast never known,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The weariness, the
fever, and the fret<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Here,
where men sit and hear each other groan;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where palsy shakes a
few, sad, last gray hairs,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Where
youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Where but to think is to be full of sorrow<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And
leaden-eyed despairs,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Where
Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Or new Love pine at them beyond to-morrow.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Away! away! for I will
fly to thee,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Not
charioted by Bacchus and his pards,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But on the viewless
wings of Poesy,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Though
the dull brain perplexes and retards:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Already with thee!
tender is the night,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And
haply the Queen-Moon is on her throne,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Cluster'd around by all her starry Fays;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But
here there is no light,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Save
what from heaven is with the breezes blown<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I cannot see what
flowers are at my feet,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Nor
what soft incense hangs upon the boughs,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But, in embalmed
darkness, guess each sweet<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Wherewith
the seasonable month endows<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The grass, the thicket,
and the fruit-tree wild;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> White
hawthorn, and the pastoral eglantine;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Fast fading violets cover'd up in leaves;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> And
mid-May's eldest child,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Darkling I listen; and,
for many a time<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> I
have been half in love with easeful Death,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Call'd him soft names
in many a mused rhyme,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To
take into the air my quiet breath;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Now more than ever seems it rich to die,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To
cease upon the midnight with no pain,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
such an ecstasy!<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Still
wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain—<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
To thy high requiem become a sod.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thou wast not born for
death, immortal Bird!<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> No
hungry generations tread thee down;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The voice I hear this
passing night was heard<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
ancient days by emperor and clown:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Perhaps the self-same
song that found a path<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Through
the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
She stood in tears amid the alien corn;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
same that oft-times hath<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Charm'd
magic casements, opening on the foam<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forlorn! the very word
is like a bell<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To
toll me back from thee to my sole self!<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Adieu! the fancy cannot
cheat so well<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> As
she is fam'd to do, deceiving elf.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Adieu! adieu! thy
plaintive anthem fades<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Past
the near meadows, over the still stream,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Up the hill-side; and now 'tis buried deep<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
the next valley-glades:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Was
it a vision, or a waking dream?<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Fled is that music:—Do I wake or sleep?<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ulysses<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: center; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By Alfred Lord Tennyson</span></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It little profits that an idle king, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By this still hearth, among these barren crags, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Match'd with an aged wife, I mete and dole <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Unequal laws unto a savage race, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I cannot rest from travel: I will drink <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Life to the lees: All times I have enjoy'd <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Greatly, have suffer'd greatly, both with those <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That loved me, and alone, on shore, and when <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thro' scudding drifts the rainy Hyades <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vext the dim sea: I am become a name; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For always roaming with a hungry heart <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Much have I seen and known; cities of men <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And manners, climates, councils, governments, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Myself not least, but honour'd of them all; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And drunk delight of battle with my peers, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I am a part of all that I have met; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yet all experience is an arch wherethro' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gleams that untravell'd world whose margin fades <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For ever and forever when I move. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How dull it is to pause, to make an end, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To rust unburnish'd, not to shine in use! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As tho' to breathe were life! Life piled on life <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Were all too little, and of one to me <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Little remains: but every hour is saved <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From that eternal silence, something more, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A bringer of new things; and vile it were <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For some three suns to store and hoard myself, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And this gray spirit yearning in desire <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To follow knowledge like a sinking star, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Beyond the utmost bound of human thought. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This
is my son, mine own Telemachus, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To whom I leave the sceptre and the isle,— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Well-loved of me, discerning to fulfil <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This labour, by slow prudence to make mild <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A rugged people, and thro' soft degrees <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Subdue them to the useful and the good. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Most blameless is he, centred in the sphere <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of common duties, decent not to fail <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In offices of tenderness, and pay <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meet adoration to my household gods, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When I am gone. He works his work, I mine. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> There
lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There gloom the dark, broad seas. My mariners, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Souls that have toil'd, and wrought, and thought with
me— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That ever with a frolic welcome took <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The thunder and the sunshine, and opposed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Free hearts, free foreheads—you and I are old; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Old age hath yet his honour and his toil; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Death closes all: but something ere the end, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some work of noble note, may yet be done, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">'T is not too late to seek a newer world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Push off, and sitting well in order smite <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of all the western stars, until I die. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It may be that the gulfs will wash us down: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And see the great Achilles, whom we knew. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tho' much is taken, much abides; and tho' <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We are not now that strength which in old days <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Moved earth and heaven, that which we are, we are; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One equal temper of heroic hearts, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dover
Beach<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
Matthew Arnold<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sea is calm tonight. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The tide is full, the moon lies fair <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon the straits; on the French coast the light <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Come to the window, sweet is the night-air! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Only, from the long line of spray <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where the sea meets the moon-blanched land, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Listen! you hear the grating roar <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At their return, up the high strand, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Begin, and cease, and then again begin, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With tremulous cadence slow, and bring <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The eternal note of sadness in. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sophocles long ago <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Heard it on the Ægean, and it brought <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of human misery; we <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Find also in the sound a thought, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hearing it by this distant northern sea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Sea of Faith <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was once, too, at the full, and round earth’s shore <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But now I only hear <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Retreating, to the breath <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of the night-wind, down the vast edges drear <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And naked shingles of the world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ah, love, let us be true <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To one another! for the world, which seems <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To lie before us like a land of dreams, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So various, so beautiful, so new, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And we are here as on a darkling plain <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where ignorant armies clash by night.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My
Last Duchess<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By
Robert Browning<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That’s my last Duchess painted on the wall, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Looking as if she were alive. I call <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf’s hands <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Worked busily a day, and there she stands. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Will’t please you sit and look at her? I said <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Strangers like you that pictured countenance, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The depth and passion of its earnest glance, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But to myself they turned (since none puts by <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The curtain I have drawn for you, but I) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How such a glance came there; so, not the first <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, ’twas not <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her husband’s presence only, called that spot <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of joy into the Duchess’ cheek; perhaps <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fra Pandolf chanced to say, “Her mantle laps <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Over my lady’s wrist too much,” or “Paint <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Must never hope to reproduce the faint <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Half-flush that dies along her throat.” Such stuff <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For calling up that spot of joy. She had <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A heart—how shall I say?— too soon made glad, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Too easily impressed; she liked whate’er <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">She looked on, and her looks went everywhere. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sir, ’twas all one! My favour at her breast, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The dropping of the daylight in the West, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The bough of cherries some officious fool <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">She rode with round the terrace—all and each <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Would draw from her alike the approving speech, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or blush, at least. She thanked men—good! but thanked <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With anybody’s gift. Who’d stoop to blame <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This sort of trifling? Even had you skill <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In speech—which I have not—to make your will <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quite clear to such an one, and say, “Just this <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Or there exceed the mark”—and if she let <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse— <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">E’en then would be some stooping; and I choose <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Never to stoop. Oh, sir, she smiled, no doubt, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whene’er I passed her; but who passed without <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As if alive. Will’t please you rise? We’ll meet <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The company below, then. I repeat, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Count your master’s known munificence <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Is ample warrant that no just pretense <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Of mine for dowry will be disallowed; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At starting, is my object. Nay, we’ll go <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-indent: -12.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Great Expectations<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
-Charles Dickens<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As an infant, Philip Pirrip was
unable to pronounce either his first name or his last; doing his best, he
called himself “Pip,” and the name stuck. Now Pip, a young boy, is an orphan
living in his sister’s house in the marsh country in southeast England.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
One evening, Pip sits in the isolated
village churchyard, staring at his parents’ tombstones. Suddenly, a horrific
man, growling, dressed in rags, and with his leg in chains, springs out from
behind the gravestones and seizes Pip. This escaped convict questions Pip
harshly and demands that Pip bring him food and a file with which he can saw
away his leg irons.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 2<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Frightened into obedience, Pip runs to
the house he shares with his overbearing sister and her kindly husband, the
blacksmith Joe Gargery. The boy stashes some bread and butter in one leg of his
pants, but he is unable to get away quickly. It is Christmas Eve, and Pip is
forced to stir the holiday pudding all evening. His sister, whom Pip calls Mrs.
Joe, thunders about. She threatens Pip and Joe with her cane, which she has
named Tickler, and with a foul-tasting concoction called tar-water. Very early
the next morning, Pip sneaks down to the pantry, where he steals some brandy
(mistakenly refilling the bottle with tar-water, though we do not learn this
until Chapter<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="small-caps"><span style="letter-spacing: 1.2pt; text-transform: uppercase;">4</span></span>)
and a pork pie for the convict. He then sneaks to Joe’s smithy, where he steals
a file. Stealthily, he heads back into the marshes to meet the convict.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 3<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Unfortunately, the first man he finds
hiding in the marshes is actually a second, different convict, who tries to
strike Pip and then flees. When Pip finally comes upon his original tormentor,
he finds him suffering, cold, wet, and hungry. Pip is kind to the man, but the
convict becomes violent again when Pip mentions the other escapee he
encountered in the marsh, as though the news troubles him greatly. As the
convict scrapes at his leg irons with the file, Pip slips away through the
mists and returns home.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 4<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
As he returns home, Pip is overwhelmed
by a sense of guilt for having helped the convict. He even expects to find a
policeman waiting for him at Joe’s house. When Pip slips into the house, he
finds no policemen, only Mrs. Joe busy in the kitchen cooking Christmas dinner.
Pip eats breakfast alone with Joe. The two go to church; Mrs. Joe, despite her
moralizing habits, stays behind.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Christmas dinner is an agonizing
affair for Pip, who is crowded into a corner of the table by his well-to-do
Uncle Pumblechook and the church clerk, Mr. Wopsle. Terrified that his sneaking
out of the house to help the convict will be discovered, Pip nearly panics when
Pumblechook asks for the brandy and finds the bottle filled with tar-water. His
panic increases when, suddenly, several police officers burst into the house
with a pair of handcuffs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 5<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Pip is sure that the policemen have come
to arrest him, but all they want is for Joe to fix their handcuffs. The
bumbling policemen tell Pip and Joe that they are searching for a pair of
escaped convicts, and the two agree to participate in the manhunt. Seeing the
policemen, Pip feels a strange surge of worry for “his” convict.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
After a long hunt, the two convicts are
discovered together, fighting furiously with one another in the marsh. Cornered
and captured, Pip’s convict protects Pip by claiming to have stolen the food
and file himself. The convict is taken away to a prison ship and out of Pip’s
life—so Pip believes—forever.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 6<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Joe carries Pip home, and they finish
their Christmas dinner; Pip sleepily heads to bed while Joe narrates the scene
of the capture to Mrs. Joe and the guests. Pip continues to feel powerfully
guilty about the incident—not on his sister’s account, but because he has not
told the whole truth to Joe.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 7<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
After the incident, some time passes.
Pip lives with his guilty secret and struggles to learn reading and writing at
Mrs. Wopsle’s school. At school, Pip befriends Biddy, the granddaughter of the
teacher. One day, Joe and Pip sit talking; the illiterate Joe admires a piece
of writing Pip has just done. Suddenly, Mrs. Joe bursts in with Pumblechook.
Highly self-satisfied, they reveal that Pumblechook has arranged for Pip to go
play at the house of Miss Havisham, a rich spinster who lives nearby. Mrs. Joe
and Pumblechook hope she will make Pip’s fortune, and they plan to send him
home with Pumblechook before he goes to Miss Havisham’s the next day. The boy
is given a rough bath, dressed in his suit, and taken away by Pumblechook.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 8<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Over breakfast the next morning,
Pumblechook sternly grills Pip on multiplication problems. At ten, he is taken
to Miss Havisham’s manor, Satis House. The gate is locked, and a small, very
beautiful girl comes to open it. She is rude to Pumblechook and sends him away
when she takes Pip inside. She leads him through the ornate, dark mansion to
Miss Havisham’s candlelit room, where the skeletal old woman waits by her
mirror, wearing a faded wedding dress, surrounded by clocks stopped at twenty
minutes to nine</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
The girl leaves, and Miss Havisham
orders Pip to play. He tells her earnestly that he is too affected by the
newness and grandeur of the house to play. Miss Havisham forces him to call for
the girl, whose name is Estella. Estella returns, and Miss Havisham orders her
to play cards with Pip. Estella is cold and insulting, criticizing Pip’s low
social class and his unrefined manners. Miss Havisham is morbidly delighted to
see that Pip is nonetheless taken with the girl. Pip cries when he leaves Satis
House.</div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 9<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
When Pip returns home, he lies to Joe,
Mrs. Joe, and Pumblechook about his experience at Satis House, inventing a wild
story in which Estella feeds him cake and four immense dogs fight over veal
cutlet from a silver basket. He feels guilty for lying to Joe and tells him the
truth in the smithy later that day. Joe, who is astonished to find out that Pip
has lied, advises Pip to keep company with his own class for the present and
tells him that he can succeed someday only if he takes an honest path. Pip
resolves to remember Joe’s words, but that night, as he lies in bed, he can’t
help but imagine how “common” Estella would find Joe, and he falls into a reverie
about the grandeur of his hours at Satis House.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 10<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip continues to suffer through his
schooling, but a new desire for education and social standing makes him agree
to take extra lessons from his sensible friend Biddy. Later the same day, when
Pip goes to the pub to bring Joe home, he sees a mysterious stranger stirring
his drink with the same file Pip stole for the convict. The stranger gives Pip
two pounds, which Pip later gives to Mrs. Joe. He continues to worry that his
aid to the convict will be discovered.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 11<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Not long after his encounter with
the mysterious man in the pub, Pip is taken back to Miss Havisham’s, where he
is paraded in front of a group of fawning, insincere relatives visiting the
dowager on her birthday. He encounters a large, dark man on the stairs, who
criticizes him. He again plays cards with Estella, then goes to the garden,
where he is asked to fight by a pale young gentleman. Pip knocks the young
gentleman down, and Estella allows him to give her a kiss on the cheek. He
returns home, ashamed that Estella looks down on him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 12<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip worries that he will be punished
for fighting, but the incident goes unmentioned during his next visit to Miss
Havisham’s. He continues to visit regularly for the next several months,
pushing Miss Havisham around in her wheelchair, relishing his time with
Estella, and becoming increasingly hopeful that Miss Havisham means to raise
him from his low social standing and give him a gentleman’s fortune. Because he
is preoccupied with his hopes, he fails to notice that Miss Havisham encourages
Estella to torment him, whispering “Break their hearts!” in her ear. Partially
because of his elevated hopes for his own social standing, Pip begins to grow
apart from his family, confiding in Biddy instead of Joe and often feeling
ashamed that Joe is “common.” One day at Satis House, Miss Havisham offers to
help with the papers that would officially make Pip Joe’s apprentice, and Pip
is devastated to realize that she never meant to make him a gentleman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 13<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Joe visits Satis House to complete
Pip’s apprenticeship papers; with his rough speech and crude appearance, he
seems horribly out of place in the Gothic mansion. Estella laughs at him and at
Pip. Miss Havisham gives Pip a gift of twenty-five pounds, and Pip and Joe go
to Town Hall to confirm the apprenticeship. Joe and Mrs. Joe take Pip out to
celebrate with Pumblechook and Mr. Wopsle, but Pip is surly and angry, keenly
disappointed by this turn in his life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 14<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Time passes as Pip begins working in
Joe’s forge; the boy slowly becomes an adolescent. He hates working as Joe’s
apprentice, but out of consideration for Joe’s goodness, he keeps his feelings
to himself. As he works, he thinks he sees Estella’s face mocking him in the
forge, and he longs for Satis House.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 15<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip still tries hard to read and
expand his knowledge, and on Sundays, he also tries to teach Joe to read. One
Sunday, Pip tries to persuade Joe that he needs to visit Miss Havisham, but Joe
again advises him to stay away. However, his advice sounds confused, and Pip
resolves to do as he pleases.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Joe’s forge worker, Dolge Orlick,
makes Pip’s life even less pleasant. Orlick is vicious, oafish, and hateful,
and he treats Pip cruelly. When Pip was still a young child, Orlick frightened
him by convincing him that the devil lived in a corner of the forge. One day,
Mrs. Joe complains about Orlick taking a holiday, and she and Orlick launch
into a shouting match. Mrs. Joe gleefully calls on Joe to defend her honor, and
Joe quickly defeats Orlick in the fight. Mrs. Joe faints from excitement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip visits Miss Havisham and learns
that Estella has been sent abroad. Dejected, he allows Wopsle to take him to
Pumblechook’s for the evening, where they pass the time reading from a play. On
the way home, Pip sees Orlick in the shadows and hears guns fire from the
prison ships. When he arrives home, he learns that Mrs. Joe has been attacked
and is now a brain-damaged invalid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 16<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip’s old guilt resurfaces when he
learns that convicts—more specifically, convicts with leg irons that have been
filed through—are suspected of the attack on his sister. The detectives who
come from London to solve the crime are bumblers, and the identity of the
attacker remains undiscovered. Mrs. Joe, who is now unable to talk, begins to
draw the letter “T” on her slate over and over, which Pip guesses represents a
hammer. From this, Biddy deduces that she is referring to Orlick. Orlick is
called in to see Mrs. Joe, and Pip expects her to denounce him as her attacker.
Instead, she seems eager to please Orlick and often calls for him in subsequent
days by drawing a “T” on her slate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 17<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biddy moves in to help nurse Mrs.
Joe. Pip visits Satis House again and notices how bleak it is without Estella.
He walks with Biddy on Sunday and confides to her his dissatisfaction with his
place in life. Although he seems to be attracted to Biddy, he tells her the
secret of his love for Estella. When Biddy advises him to stay away from
Estella, Pip is angry with her, but he still becomes very jealous when Orlick
begins trying to flirt with her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 18<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At the pub one evening, Pip sits in
a crowd listening to Wopsle read the story of a murder trial from a newspaper.
A stranger begins questioning Wopsle about the legal details of the case. Pip
recognizes him as the large, dark man he met on the stairs at Miss Havisham’s
(in Chapter <span style="letter-spacing: 1.2pt; text-transform: uppercase;">11</span>).
The stranger introduces himself as the lawyer Jaggers, and he goes home with
Pip and Joe. Here, he explains that Pip will soon inherit a large fortune. His
education as a gentleman will begin immediately. Pip will move to London and
become a gentleman, he says, but the person who is giving him the fortune
wishes to remain secret: Pip can never know the name of his benefactor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip’s fondest wish has been
realized, and he assumes that his benefactor must be Miss Havisham—after all,
he first met Jaggers at her house, and his tutor will be Matthew Pocket, her
cousin. Joe seems deflated and sad to be losing Pip, and he refuses Jaggers’s
condescending offer of money. Biddy is also sad, but Pip adopts a snobbish
attitude and thinks himself too good for his surroundings. Still, when Pip sees
Joe and Biddy quietly talking together that night, he feels sorry to be leaving
them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 19<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip’s snobbery is back in the
morning, however, as he allows the tailor to grovel over him when he goes in
for a new suit of clothes. Pip even allows Pumblechook to take him out to
dinner and ingratiate himself. He tries to comfort Joe, but his attempt is
obviously forced, and Biddy criticizes him for it. Preparing to leave for
London, he visits Miss Havisham one last time; based on her excitement and
knowledge of the details of his situation, Pip feels even more certain that she
is his anonymous benefactor. After a final night at Joe’s house, Pip leaves for
London in the morning, suddenly full of regret for having behaved so snobbishly
toward the people who love him most.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 20<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jaggers takes Pip to London, where
the country boy is amazed and displeased by the stench and the thronging crowds
in such areas as Smithfield. Jaggers seems to be an important and powerful man:
hordes of people wait outside his office, muttering his name among themselves.
Pip meets Jaggers’s cynical, wry clerk, Wemmick.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 21<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wemmick introduces Pip to Herbert Pocket, the son of Pip’s
tutor, with whom Pip will spend the night. Herbert and Pip take an immediate
liking to one another; Herbert is cheerful and open, and Pip feels that his
easy good nature is a contrast to his own awkward diffidence. Whereas Pip’s
fortune has been made for him, Herbert is an impoverished gentleman who hopes
to become a shipping merchant. They realize, surprised, that they have met
before: Herbert is the pale young gentleman whom Pip fought in the garden at
Satis House.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 22<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip asks Herbert to help him learn to be a gentleman, and,
after a feast, the two agree to live together. Herbert subtly corrects Pip’s
poor table manners, gives him the nickname “Handel,” and tells him the whole
story of Miss Havisham. When she was young, her family fortune was misused by
her unruly half brother, and she fell in love with—and agreed to marry—a man
from a lower social class than her own. This man convinced her to buy her half
brother’s share of the family brewery, which he wanted to run, for a huge
price. But on their wedding day, the man never appeared, instead sending a note
which Miss Havisham received at twenty minutes to nine—the time at which she
later stopped all her clocks. It was assumed that Miss Havisham’s lover was in
league with her half brother and that they split the profits from the brewery
sale. At some later point, Miss Havisham adopted Estella, but Herbert does not
know when or where.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 23<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The next day, Pip visits the unpleasant commercial world of
the Royal Exchange before going to Matthew Pocket’s house to be tutored and to
have dinner. The Pockets’ home is a bustling, chaotic place where the servants
run the show. Matthew is absentminded but kind, and his wife is socially
ambitious but not well born; the children are being raised by the nurse. Pip’s
fellow students are a strange pair: Bentley Drummle, a future baronet, is
oafish and unpleasant, and a young man named Startop is soft and delicate. At
dinner, Pip concentrates on his table manners and observes the peculiarities of
the Pockets’ social lives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 24<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip returns to Jaggers’s office in order to arrange to share
rooms with Herbert. There Pip befriends the lively Wemmick, who invites him to
dinner. Pip sees Jaggers in the courtroom, where he is a potent and menacing
force, frightening even the judge with his thundering speeches.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 25<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip continues to get to know his fellow students and the
Pockets, attending dinners at both Wemmick’s and Jaggers’s. Wemmick’s house is
like something out of a dream, an absurd “castle” in Walworth that he shares
with his “Aged Parent.” Pip observes that Wemmick seems to have a new
personality when he enters his home: while he is cynical and dry at work, at
home he seems jovial and merry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 26<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By contrast, Jaggers’s house is
oppressive and dark, shared only with a gloomy housekeeper, Molly. Pip’s fellow
students attend the dinner at Jaggers’s with Pip, and Pip and Drummle quarrel
over a loan Drummle ungratefully borrowed from Startop. Jaggers warns Pip to
stay away from Drummle, though the lawyer claims to like the disagreeable young
man himself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 27<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Joe comes to visit Pip in London.
Because Pip worries that Joe will disapprove of his opulent lifestyle and that
Drummle will look down on him because of Joe, Joe’s visit is strained and
awkward. He tries to tell Pip the news from home: Wopsle, for instance, has
become an actor. But Pip acts annoyed with him until Joe mentions that Estella
has returned to Satis House and that she wishes to see Pip. Pip suddenly feels
more kindly toward Joe, but the blacksmith leaves before Pip can improve his
behavior.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Pip, dear old chap, life is made of
ever so many partings welded together, as I may say, and one man’s a
blacksmith, and one’s a whitesmith, and one’s a goldsmith, and one’s a
coppersmith. Diwisions among such must come. . . .”<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 28<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hoping to see Estella and to
apologize to Joe, Pip travels home, forced to share a coach with a pair of
convicts, one of whom is the mysterious stranger who gave Pip money in the pub.
Though this man does not recognize Pip, Pip overhears him explaining that the
convict Pip helped that long-ago night in the marshes had asked him to deliver
the money to Pip. Pip is so terrified by his memory of that night that he gets
off the coach at its first stop within the town limits. When he arrives at his
hotel, he reads a notice in a newspaper, from which he learns that Pumblechook
is taking credit for his rise in status.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 29<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When he travels to Satis House the
next day, Pip pictures himself as a triumphant knight riding to rescue the Lady
Estella from an evil castle. He encounters Orlick, now Miss Havisham’s porter,
at the gate. When he sees Estella, he is stunned: she has become a ravishing
young woman. Despite his newfound fortune, Pip feels horribly inadequate around
her, as unworthy and clumsy as ever. Miss Havisham goads him on, snapping at
him to continue to love Estella. Pip walks with Estella in the garden, but she
treats him with indifference, and he becomes upset. Pip realizes that she
reminds him of someone, but he can’t place the resemblance. Back inside, he
discovers Jaggers there and feels oppressed by the lawyer’s heavy presence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 30<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The next day, Pip tells Jaggers
about Orlick’s past, and Jaggers fires the man from Miss Havisham’s employ. Pip
is mocked by the tailor’s apprentice as he walks down the street. He returns in
low spirits to London, where Herbert tries to cheer him up, though he also
tries to convince him that, even if Miss Havisham is his secret benefactor, she
does not intend for him to marry Estella. Herbert confesses to Pip that he,
too, is in love and, in fact, has a fiancée named Clara, but he is too poor to
marry her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 31<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip and Herbert go to the theater,
where Wopsle plays a ridiculous Hamlet. Pip takes the hapless actor out to
dinner following the play, but his mood remains sour.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 32<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip receives a note from Estella,
ordering him to meet her at a London train station. He arrives very early and
encounters Wemmick, who takes him on a brief tour of the miserable grounds of
Newgate Prison. Pip feels uncomfortable in the dismal surroundings, but Wemmick
is oddly at home, even introducing Pip to a man who has been sentenced to death
by hanging.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 33<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When Pip meets Estella, he is again
troubled by her resemblance to someone he can’t place. She treats Pip
arrogantly, but sends him into ecstatic joy when she refers to their
“instructions,” which makes him feel as though they are destined to be married.
After he escorts her through the gaslit London night to the house at which she
is staying, he returns to the Pockets’ home.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 34<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip feels terribly guilty for his
snobbish treatment of Joe and Biddy, and he feels as though his degenerate
lifestyle has been a bad influence on Herbert. The two young men catalog their
debts, but they are interrupted by a letter carrying the news that Mrs. Joe has
died.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 35<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip is surprised by the intensity of
his sadness about his sister’s death. He returns home at once for the funeral.
He meets Pumblechook, who continues to fawn over him irritatingly. He tries to
mend his relations with Joe and Biddy; Biddy is skeptical of his pledges to
visit more often. Pip says goodbye to them the next morning, truly intending to
visit more often, and walks away into the mist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 36<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip’s twenty-first birthday finally
arrives, meaning that he is an adult and will begin to receive a regular income
from his fortune rather than having to go to Jaggers to access his money. He
feels a great sense of excitement, because he hopes that his entrance into
adulthood will cause Jaggers to tell him the identity of his mysterious
benefactor. Despite Herbert’s warning, he feels increasingly certain that it is
Miss Havisham and that she means for him to marry Estella. But during their
interview, Jaggers is cold and brief; he reveals nothing about the source of
Pip’s fortune, simply telling him that his income will be five hundred pounds a
year and refusing to take responsibility for the outcome. For some reason, the
encounter reminds Pip of his meeting with the convict in the graveyard so many
years before. Still, Pip invites Jaggers to participate in his birthday dinner,
but Jaggers’s oppressive presence makes the evening less enjoyable for Pip and
Herbert.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 37<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon receiving his income, Pip decides to help Herbert by
buying Herbert’s way into the merchant business. He asks Wemmick for advice. At
Jaggers’s office (in Chapter<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="small-caps"><span style="letter-spacing: 1.2pt; text-transform: uppercase;">36</span></span>),
Wemmick cynically advises Pip not to help Herbert, but later, at the Castle
(where Pip also meets Wemmick’s girlfriend, Miss Skiffins), he jovially offers
exactly the opposite advice and agrees to help Pip with the scheme. They find a
merchant in need of a young partner, and Pip buys Herbert the partnership.
Everything is all arranged anonymously, so that Herbert, like Pip, does not
know the identity of his benefactor.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 38<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip spends a great deal of time with
Estella in the house of her London hostess, Mrs. Brandley. However, he is not
treated as a serious suitor. Rather, he is allowed to accompany Estella
everywhere she goes, watching her treat her other suitors cruelly but being
more or less ignored himself. He cannot understand why Miss Havisham does not
announce the details of their engagement, in which he continues to believe. Pip
and Estella go to visit the old woman, and Pip observes for the first time a
combative relationship between her and Estella: Miss Havisham goads Estella on
to break men’s hearts, but Estella treats Miss Havisham as coldly as she treats
her suitors. Shortly thereafter, Pip learns to his horror that Drummle is
courting Estella. He confronts Estella about the news, but she refuses to take
his concern seriously, reminding Pip that he is the only suitor she doesn’t try
to deceive and entrap. But this only makes Pip feel less important <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">to her. That night, the young man
imagines his fate as a heavy stone slab hanging over his head, about to fall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“I begin to think,” said Estella, in
a musing way, after another moment of calm wonder, “that I almost understand
how this comes about.”<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 39<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Time passes, and Pip is now
twenty-three. One night, during a midnight thunderstorm, he hears heavy
footsteps trudging up his stairs. An old sailor enters Pip’s apartment, and Pip
treats him nervously and haughtily before recognizing him. It is Pip’s convict,
the same man who terrorized him in the cemetery and on the marsh when he was a
little boy. Horrified, Pip learns the truth of his situation: the convict went
to Australia, where he worked in sheep ranching and earned a huge fortune.
Moved by Pip’s kindness to him on the marsh, he arranged to use his wealth to
make Pip a gentleman. The convict, not Miss Havisham, is Pip’s secret
benefactor. Pip is not meant to marry Estella at all.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
With a crestfallen heart, Pip hears that
the convict is even now on the run from the law, and that if he is caught, he
could be put to death. Pip realizes that though the convict’s story has plunged
him into despair, it is his duty to help his benefactor. He feeds him and gives
him Herbert’s bed for the night, since Herbert is away. Terrified of his new
situation, Pip looks in on the convict, who is sleeping with a pistol on his
pillow, and then locks the doors and falls asleep. He awakes at five o’clock in
the morning to a dark sky tormented by wind and rain.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 40<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the morning, Pip trips over a
shadowy man crouching on his staircase. He runs to fetch the watchman, but when
they return the man is gone. Pip turns his attention to the convict, who gives
his name as Abel Magwitch. To keep the servants from learning the truth, Pip
decides to call Magwitch “Uncle Provis,” an alias Magwitch made up for himself
on the ship from Australia to England. Pip arranges a disguise and calls on
Jaggers to confirm Magwitch’s story. Magwitch tramps around the apartment,
embarrassing Pip, “his” gentleman, with his bad table manners and rough speech.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 41<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After five days of enduring his
guest, Pip is forced to confront his problem head-on when Herbert returns home.
Magwitch leaves, and Herbert and Pip discuss the situation, agreeing that Pip
should no longer use Magwitch’s money. They plan for Pip to take Magwitch
abroad, where he will be safe from the police, before parting ways with him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 42<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The next morning, Magwitch tells the young men his story. He
was an orphaned child and lived a life of crime out of necessity. His earliest
memory is of stealing turnips to feed himself. As a young man, he met a
gentleman criminal named Compeyson and fell under his power. Compeyson had
already driven another accomplice, Arthur, into alcoholism and madness. Arthur,
Magwitch says, was driven to despair by the memory of a wealthy woman he and
Compeyson had once victimized. Magwitch remembers a woman from his own past and
becomes distraught, but he does not tell Herbert and Pip about her. He
continues, saying that when he and Compeyson were caught, Compeyson turned on
him, using his gentleman’s manners to obtain a light sentence at the trial.
Magwitch wanted revenge, and Compeyson was the man Pip saw him struggling with
that night on the marsh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At this point, Herbert passes Pip a note that tangles the
situation even further. The note reveals that Arthur was Miss Havisham’s half
brother; Compeyson was the man who stood her up on their wedding day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 43<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ashamed that his rise to social prominence is owed to such a
coarse, lowborn man, Pip feels that he must leave Estella forever. After an
unpleasant encounter with Drummle at the inn, he travels to Satis House to see
Miss Havisham and Estella one final time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 44<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Miss Havisham admits that she knowingly allowed him to
believe she was his benefactor, and she agrees to help Herbert now that Pip can
no longer use his own fortune. Pip finally tells Estella he loves her, but she
coldly replies that she never deceived him into thinking she shared his
feelings. She announces that she has decided to marry Drummle. Surprisingly,
Miss Havisham seems to pity Pip.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Upset beyond words, Pip walks the whole way back to London.
At a gate close to his home, a night porter gives him a note from Wemmick,
reading “don’t go home.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 45<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Afraid, Pip spends a night at a
seedy inn called the Hummums. The next day, Pip finds Wemmick, who explains that
he has learned through Jaggers’s office that Compeyson is pursuing Magwitch. He
says that Herbert has hidden Magwitch at Clara’s house, and Pip leaves at once
to go there.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 46<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upon arriving, he finds that Clara’s
father is a drunken ogre and feels glad that he has helped Clara and Herbert
escape him. He finds Magwitch upstairs and is surprised by the concern he now
feels for the old convict’s safety; he even shields Magwitch from the news of
Compeyson’s reappearance. Herbert and Pip discuss a plan to sneak Magwitch away
on the river, and Pip begins to consider staying with his benefactor even after
their escape. Pip buys a rowboat, keeping a nervous watch for the dark figure
searching for Magwitch.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 47<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip anxiously waits for Wemmick’s
signal to transport Magwitch downriver. Despite his softening attitude toward
the convict, he feels morally obligated to refuse to spend any more of
Magwitch’s money, and his debts pile up. He realizes that Estella’s marriage to
Drummle must have taken place by now, but he intentionally avoids learning more
about it. All of his worries are for Magwitch.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip goes to the theater to forget
his troubles. After the performance, Wopsle tells Pip that in the audience
behind him was one of the convicts from the battle on the marsh so many years
ago. Pip tries to question Wopsle calmly, but inside he is terrified, realizing
that Compeyson must be shadowing him. Pip rushes home to tell Herbert and
Wemmick.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 48<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jaggers invites Pip to dinner, where
he gives the young man a note from Miss Havisham. When Jaggers mentions
Estella’s marriage shortly after Jaggers’s housekeeper Molly walks in, Pip
realizes that Molly is the person he couldn’t place, the person Estella
mysteriously resembles. He realizes at once that Molly must be Estella’s
mother. Walking home with Wemmick after the dinner, Pip questions his friend
about Molly, and he learns that she was accused of killing a woman over her
common-law husband and of murdering her little daughter to hurt him. Pip feels
certain that Estella is that lost daughter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 49<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip visits Miss Havisham, who feels
unbearably guilty for having caused Estella to break his heart. Sobbing, she
clings to Pip’s feet, pleading with him to forgive her. He acts kindly toward
her, then goes for a walk in the garden. There, he has a morbid fantasy that
Miss Havisham is dead. He looks up at her window just in time to see her bend
over the fire and go up in a column of flame. Rushing in to save her, Pip sweeps
the ancient wedding feast from her table and smothers the flames with the
tablecloth. Miss Havisham lives, but she becomes an invalid, a shadow of her
former self. Pip stays with her after the doctors have departed; early the next
morning, he leaves her in the care of her servants and returns to London.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 50<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip himself was badly burned trying
to save Miss Havisham, and while Herbert changes his bandages, they agree that
they have both grown fonder of Magwitch. Herbert tells Pip the part of
Magwitch’s story that the convict originally left out, the story of the woman
in his past. The story matches that of Jaggers’s housekeeper, Molly. Magwitch,
therefore, is Molly’s former common-law husband and Estella’s father.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 51<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip is seized by a feverish
conviction to learn the whole truth. He visits Jaggers and manages to shock the
lawyer by proclaiming that he knows the truth of Estella’s parentage. Pip
cannot convince Jaggers to divulge any information, however, until he appeals to
Wemmick’s human, kind side, the side that until now Wemmick has never shown in
the office. Jaggers is so surprised and pleased to learn that Wemmick has a
pleasant side that he confirms that Estella is Molly’s daughter, though he
didn’t know Magwitch’s role in the story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 52<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip leaves to finish the task of
securing Herbert’s partnership. He learns that Herbert is to be transferred to
the Middle East, and Herbert fantasizes about escorting Clara to the land of
Arabian Nights.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A message from Wemmick arrives,
indicating that they should be ready to move Magwitch in two days. But Pip also
finds an anonymous note threatening “Uncle Provis,” demanding that Pip travel
to the marshes in secret. Pip travels to the inn near his childhood home, where
he is reminded of how badly he has neglected Joe since he became a gentleman.
Of all his losses, Pip thinks he regrets the loss of Joe’s friendship the most.
That night, humbled and with an arm injured from the fire, he heads out to the
mysterious meeting on the marshes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 53<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The night is dark over the marsh; in
the sky the moon is a deep red. Thick mists surround the limekiln to which Pip
travels. He enters an abandoned stone quarry and suddenly finds his candle
extinguished; a noose is thrown over his head in the darkness. He is bound
tightly, and a gruff voice threatens to kill him if he cries out. A flint is
struck, its flame illuminating Orlick’s wicked face.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Orlick accuses Pip of coming between
him and a young woman he fancied, among other things, and declares his
intention to have revenge. He also admits to killing Mrs. Joe, though he says
that Pip is ultimately responsible for her death since Orlick did it to get
back at him. “It was you, villain,” Pip retorts boldly, but inside he is worried:
he is afraid that he will die and none of his loved ones will know how he hoped
to improve himself and to help them. Orlick reveals that he has some connection
with Compeyson and has solved the mystery of Magwitch, and that he was the
shadowy figure lurking in Pip’s stairwell.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Orlick takes a swig of liquor, then
picks up a stone hammer and advances menacingly toward Pip. Pip cries out, and
suddenly Herbert bursts in with a group of men to save him. Herbert had found
Orlick’s note asking Pip to meet him at the marshes and, worried, had followed
Pip there. In the ensuing scuffle, Orlick manages to escape. Rather than
pursuing him, Pip rushes home with Herbert to carry out Magwitch’s escape.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 54<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In the morning, a sparkling sunrise
dazzles London as Pip and Herbert prepare to put their plan in motion. With
their friend Startop, the pair set out on the river; the Thames is bustling
with activity and crowded with boats. When they stop for Magwitch at Clara’s
house, he looks well and seems contemplative; he drags his hand in the water as
the boat moves and compares life to a river. As they move out of London into
the marshes, though, the mood darkens, the rowing becomes harder, and a sense
of foreboding settles over the group. At the filthy inn where they stop that
night, a servant tells them of an ominous boat he has seen lingering near the
inn; Pip worries that it could be either the police or Compeyson. That night
Pip sees two men looking into his boat, so the group arranges for Pip and Magwitch
to sneak out early the next morning and rejoin the boat further down the river.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Making their way downriver, they see
their goal—a German steamer that will take Pip and Magwitch away—in the
distance. But suddenly another rowboat appears, and a policeman calls for
Magwitch’s arrest. Magwitch recognizes Compeyson on the other boat and dives
into the river to attack him. They grapple, and each slips under the surface,
but only Magwitch resurfaces. He claims not to have drowned Compeyson, though
he says he would have liked to, but he cannot avoid being chained and led away
to prison. Now completely loyal to him, Pip takes his hand and promises to
stand by him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 55<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jaggers is certain that Magwitch
will be found guilty, but Pip remains loyal. He does not worry when he learns
that the state will appropriate Magwitch’s fortune, including Pip’s money.
While Magwitch awaits sentencing, Herbert prepares to marry Clara and Wemmick
enjoys a comical wedding to Miss Skiffins. Herbert offers Pip a job, but Pip
delays his answer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 56<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip visits Magwitch, who is sick and
imprisoned, and works to free the stricken convict. But when the old man is
found guilty and sentenced to death, as Jaggers had predicted, Magwitch tells
the judge that he believes God has decreed his death as an act of forgiveness.
On the day of his death, he is too ill to speak. Pip eases his final moments by
telling him that Estella—the child he believed to be lost—is alive, well, and a
beautiful lady. Magwitch dies in peace, and Pip prays over his body, pleading
with God to forgive his lost benefactor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 57<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After Magwitch’s death, Pip falls
into a feverish illness. He is also arrested for debt and nearly carted away to
prison; he is spared only because of his extreme ill health. He experiences
wild hallucinations, reliving scenes with Orlick and Miss Havisham and
continually seeing Joe’s face. But the last is not a hallucination: Joe has
really come, and he nurses Pip through his illness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As Pip recovers, Joe tells him the
news from home: Miss Havisham has died, wisely distributing her fortune among
the Pockets. After failing to kill Pip, Orlick robbed Pumblechook, and he since
has been caught and put in jail. And Joe has news about himself: Biddy has
helped him learn how to read and write.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip and Joe go on a Sunday outing,
just as they used to do when Pip was a boy. But when Pip tries to tell Joe the
story of Magwitch, Joe refuses to listen, not wanting to revisit painful
memories. Despite Pip’s renewed affection, living in London makes Joe
increasingly unhappy, and one morning Pip finds him gone. Before leaving, he
does Pip one last good turn, paying off all of Pip’s debts. Pip rushes home to
reconcile with Joe and decides to marry Biddy when he gets there.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 58<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When Pip arrives at his childhood
home, he finds Satis House pulled apart in preparation for an auction.
Pumblechook tracks him down at his hotel and treats him condescendingly, but
Pip rudely takes his leave and goes to find Biddy and Joe. Biddy’s schoolhouse
is empty, as is Joe’s smithy. When Pip finds them, he is shocked to discover
that they have been married. Despite his disappointed expectation of marriage
to Biddy, he expresses happiness for them and decides to take the job with Herbert.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary: Chapter 59<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Eleven years later, Pip returns to
England. He says he has learned to work hard and is content with the modest
living he makes in the mercantile firm. He goes to visit Joe and Biddy, and
tries to convince Biddy that he has resigned himself to being a bachelor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pip then goes to Satis House and
finds that it is no longer standing. In a silvery mist, Pip walks through the
overgrown, ruined garden and thinks of Estella. He has heard that she was
unhappy with Drummle but that Drummle has recently died. As the moon rises, Pip
finds Estella wandering through the old garden. They discuss the past fondly;
as the mists rise, they leave the garden hand in hand, Pip believes, never to
part again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-transform: uppercase;">THE
IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 3.75pt; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oscar Wilde<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Act I, Part One<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
The play opens in the morning room of Algernon
Moncrieff’s flat in the fashionable Mayfair section of London’s West End. As
the curtain rises, Algernon’s butler, Lane, is onstage laying out afternoon tea
while Algernon, offstage, plays the piano badly. Before long, the music stops
and Algernon enters talking about his playing, but Lane says ironically that he
didn’t feel it was “polite” to listen. Algernon briefly defends his
musicianship, then turns to the matter of Lane’s preparations for tea. Algernon
asks particularly about some cucumber sandwiches he has ordered for Lady
Bracknell, his aunt, who is expected for tea along with her daughter, Gwendolen
Fairfax, Algernon’s cousin. Lane produces the cucumber sandwiches, which
Algernon begins to munch absentmindedly, casually remarking on an extremely
inaccurate entry he’s noticed in the household books. He speculates aloud on
why it is that champagne in bachelors’ homes always gets drunk by the servants.
There follows some philosophical chat about the nature of marriage and the
married state. Then Algernon dismisses Lane and soliloquizes briefly on the
moral duty of the servant class.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Lane reenters and announces the arrival of Mr. Ernest
Worthing, the play’s protagonist, who shortly will come to be known as Jack.
Algernon greets Jack with evident enthusiasm, asking whether business or
pleasure has brought him to town. Jack says pleasure. He notices the elaborate
tea service and asks whom Algernon expects. When Algernon tells him Lady Bracknell
and Gwendolen will be coming by, Jack is delighted. He confesses that he has
come to town for the express purpose of proposing to Gwendolen. A brief debate
follows as to whether this purpose constitutes “business” or “pleasure,” and in
the course of it, Jack reaches for one of the cucumber sandwiches. Algernon
reprimands him, saying that they have been ordered expressly for his aunt. Jack
points out that Algernon has been eating them the whole time they’ve been
talking. Algernon argues that it’s appropriate for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>him</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to eat the sandwiches
since Lady Bracknell is his aunt and suggests that Jack help himself to the
bread and butter, which has been ordered for Gwendolen. When Jack begins eating
the bread and butter a bit too enthusiastically, Algernon accuses Jack of behaving
as though he were already married to Gwendolen. He reminds Jack he isn’t yet
engaged to her and says he doubts he ever will be. Surprised, Jack asks what
Algernon means. Algernon reminds Jack that Gwendolen is his first cousin and
tells him that before he gives his consent to the union, Jack “will have to
clear up the whole question of Cecily.” Jack professes bewilderment and says he
doesn’t know anyone named Cecily. By way of explanation, Algernon asks Lane to
find “that cigarette case Mr. Worthing left in the smoking room the last time
he dined here.”</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
The cigarette case, when it arrives, causes Jack some
consternation and Algernon much glee. Jack seems to have forgotten that the
case bears an inscription from “little Cecily” to “her dear Uncle Jack.” Algernon
forces Jack to explain what the inscription means, and Jack admits his name
isn’t really Ernest at all—it’s Jack. Algernon pretends to be incensed and
disbelieving. He points out that Jack has always introduced himself as Ernest,
that he answers to the name Ernest, that he even<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>looks</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as though his name
were Ernest. He pulls out one of Jack’s visiting cards and shows him the name
and address on it, saying he intends to keep the card as proof that Jack’s name
is Ernest. With some embarrassment, Jack explains that his name is “Ernest in
town and Jack in the country.”</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Algernon is still unsatisfied. He tells Jack he has
always suspected him of being “a confirmed and secret Bunburyist,” a term he
refuses to define until Jack explains why he goes by two completely different
names, and he requests that the explanation be “improbable.” Jack protests that
his explanation is not improbable. He says the old gentleman who adopted him as
a boy, Mr. Thomas Cardew, in his will made him guardian to his granddaughter,
Miss Cecily Cardew, who lives on Jack’s country estate with her governess, Miss
Prism, and addresses Jack as her uncle out of respect. Algernon slips in
questions about the location of Jack’s estate, but Jack refuses to answer and
continues with his explanation.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Jack says that anyone placed in the position of legal
guardian must have moral views about everything, and since the utmost morality
doesn’t bring great happiness, he has always pretended to have a troublesome
younger brother named Ernest who lives at the Albany Hotel and who frequently
gets in trouble. This false brother gives Jack an excuse to go to town whenever
he wants to.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Algernon counters by telling Jack a secret of his own.
Just as Jack has invented a younger brother so as to be able to escape to
London, Algernon has invented a friend called Bunbury, a permanent invalid
whose sudden and frequent relapses afford him a chance to get away to the
country whenever he wants. Bunbury’s illness, for instance, will allow Algernon
to have dinner with Jack that evening, despite the fact that he has been
committed, for over a week, to dining at Lady Bracknell’s. Algernon wants to
explain the rules of “Bunburying” to Jack, but Jack denies being a
“Bunburyist.” He says if Gwendolen accepts his marriage proposal he plans to
kill off his imaginary brother, and that he’s thinking of doing so in any case
because Cecily is taking too much interest in Ernest. Jack suggests that
Algernon do the same with Bunbury. While the two men argue about the uses and
merits of a married man’s “knowing Bunbury,” Lady Bracknell and Gwendolen are
announced.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Act I,
Part Two</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<span style="background: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Lady Bracknell comes onstage gossiping
about a friend whose husband has died recently. Seating herself, she asks for
one of the cucumber sandwiches Algernon has promised her. However, no cucumber
sandwiches are in sight—Algernon, without realizing what he was doing, has
devoured every last one. He gazes at the empty plate in horror and asks Lane
sharply why there are no cucumber sandwiches. Quickly sizing up the situation,
Lane explains blandly that he couldn’t find cucumbers at the market that
morning. Algernon dismisses Lane with obvious, and feigned, displeasure. Lady
Bracknell is not concerned, and she chatters about the nice married woman she’s
planning to have Algernon take in to dinner that evening. Regretfully, Algernon
tells Lady Bracknell that due to the illness of his friend Bunbury, he’ll be
unable to come to dinner after all. Lady Bracknell expresses her irritation
about Bunbury’s “shilly-shallying” over the question of whether he’ll live or
die. To appease her, and to give Jack a chance to propose to Gwendolen,
Algernon offers to go over the musical program for an upcoming reception with
her and takes her into the music room.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Alone with Gwendolen, Jack awkwardly
stammers out his admiration, and Gwendolen takes charge. She lets Jack know
right away that she shares his feelings, and Jack is delighted. However, he is
somewhat dismayed to learn that a good part of Gwendolen’s attraction to him is
due to what she believes is his name—Ernest. Gwendolen is fixated on the name
Ernest, which she feels has “a music of its own” and “inspires absolute
confidence.” Gwendolen makes clear that she would not consider marrying a man
who was<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>not</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>named Ernest.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Lady Bracknell returns to the room, and
Gwendolen tells her she is engaged to Jack. Lady Bracknell then interviews Jack
to determine Jack’s eligibility as a possible son-in-law. Jack seems to be
giving all the right answers, until Lady Bracknell inquires into his family
background. Jack explains that he has no idea who his parents were, and that he
was found, by the man who adopted him, in a handbag in the cloakroom at
Victoria Station. Lady Bracknell is scandalized. She forbids him from marrying
Gwendolen and leaves the house angrily.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Algernon enters, and Jack reviews the
results of his interview with Lady Bracknell, explaining that as far as
Gwendolen is concerned the two of them are engaged. Algernon asks mischievously
whether Jack has told her the truth about being “Ernest in town, and Jack in
the country,” and Jack scoffs at the idea. He says he plans to kill off Ernest
by the end of the week by having him catch a severe chill in Paris. Algernon
asks whether Jack has told Gwendolen about his ward, Cecily, and again Jack
scoffs at the question. He claims Cecily and Gwendolen will surely become
friends and “will be calling each other sister.”</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Gwendolen reenters and asks to speak
privately with Jack. She tells him how the story of his childhood has stirred
her and declares her undying love, whatever happens. She asks Jack for his
address in the country and Algernon listens in, jotting it down on his cuff.
Jack exits with Gwendolen to show her to her carriage, and Lane comes in with
some bills, which Algernon promptly tears up. He tells Lane he plans to go
“Bunburying” the next day and asks him to lay out “all the Bunbury suits.” Jack
returns, praising Gwendolen, and the curtain falls on Algernon laughing quietly
and looking at his shirt cuff.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Act II, Part One<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
In the garden of The Manor House, Jack’s
country estate in Hertfordshire, Miss Prism is trying to interest Cecily in her
German lesson. Cecily would prefer to water the flowers, but Miss Prism reminds
Cecily that Jack encourages Cecily to improve herself in every way. Cecily
expresses some slight irritation with the fact that her Uncle Jack is so serious,
and Miss Prism reminds her of his constant concern over his troublesome brother
Ernest. Cecily, who has begun writing in her diary, says she wishes Jack would
allow Ernest to visit them sometime. She suggests that she and Miss Prism might
positively influence him, but Miss Prism doesn’t approve of the notion of
trying to turn “bad people into good people.” She tells Cecily to put away her
diary and to rely on her memory instead. Cecily points out that memory is
usually inaccurate and also responsible for excessively long, three-volume
novels. Miss Prism tells her not to criticize those long novels, as she once
wrote one herself.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Dr. Chasuble, the local vicar, enters.
Cecily tells Dr. Chasuble teasingly that Miss Prism has a headache and should
take a walk with him, obviously aware of an unspoken attraction between Dr.
Chasuble and Miss Prism. Miss Prism reproaches Cecily gently for fibbing, but
she decides to take Cecily’s advice, and she and Dr. Chasuble go off together.
The butler, Merriman, then enters and announces to Cecily that Mr. Ernest
Worthing has just driven over from the station with his luggage. Merriman
presents Cecily with a visiting card, which is the one Algernon took from Jack
in Act I.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
The visiting Mr. Ernest Worthing is
actually Algernon, masquerading as Jack’s nonexistent brother, who enters
dressed to the nines and greets Cecily as his “little cousin.” When Cecily
tells him Jack won’t be back until Monday, Algernon pretends surprise and
disappointment. Cecily tells Algernon that Jack has gone to town to buy Ernest
some traveling clothes, as he plans on sending him to Australia as a last
resort. Algernon proposes another plan: he thinks Cecily should reform him.
Cecily says she doesn’t have time. Algernon decides to reform himself that afternoon,
adding that he is hungry, and he and Cecily flirt with each other as they head
into the house to find sustenance.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble return from
their walk, also flirting mildly. They are surprised when Jack enters from the
back of the garden dressed in full Victorian mourning regalia. Jack greets Miss
Prism with an air of tragedy and explains he has returned earlier than expected
owing to the death of Ernest. Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble express surprise,
shock, and condolences, and Miss Prism makes a few moralistic pronouncements.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Jack’s story matches the one he and
Algernon cooked up the previous evening: that Ernest passed away in Paris from
a “severe chill.” Dr. Chasuble suggests that he might mention the sad news in
next Sunday’s service and begins talking about his upcoming sermon. Jack
remembers the problem of Gwendolen and his name, and he asks Dr. Chasuble about
the possibility of being christened Ernest. They make arrangements for a
ceremony that afternoon. As Dr. Chasuble prepares to leave, Cecily emerges from
the house with the news that “Uncle Jack’s brother” has turned up and is in the
dining room.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Act II, Part Two<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
When Algernon appears in the doorway,
Jack is furious, not only because Algernon is there, but also because he is
disguised as Jack’s own invented, and now presumably dead, brother. Cecily
takes Jack’s anger as part of the long-standing ill feeling between the two
brothers and insists that Jack shake hands with Algernon, who has evidently
been telling her about his good offices toward his poor friend Bunbury. Jack is
apoplectic at the idea of Algernon talking to Cecily about Bunbury, but he can
do nothing. He cannot expose Algernon without revealing his own deceptions and
hypocrisy, and so he has to go along with the charade.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Jack wants Algernon to leave, but
Algernon refuses as long as Jack is in mourning. As Jack goes off to change his
clothes, Algernon soliloquizes briefly about being in love with Cecily. When
she comes back to water the garden, he uses the opportunity to propose to her.
He is surprised to discover that Cecily already considers herself engaged to
him and charmed when she reveals that her sustained fascination with “Uncle
Jack’s brother” had moved her, some months previously, to invent an elaborate
romance between herself and Ernest. Cecily has created an entire relationship,
complete with love letters (written by herself), a ring, a broken engagement,
and a reconciliation, and chronicled it in her diary. Algernon is less
enchanted with the news that part of Cecily’s interest in him derives from the
name Ernest, which, echoing Gwendolen, Cecily says “inspires absolute
confidence.”</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Algernon goes off in search of Dr.
Chasuble to see about getting himself christened Ernest. Meanwhile, Gwendolen
arrives, having decided to pay an unexpected call at the Manor House. She is
shown into the garden. Cecily, who has no idea who Gwendolen is or how she
figures in Jack’s life, orders tea and attempts to play hostess, while
Gwendolen, having no idea who Cecily is, initially takes her to be a visitor at
the Manor House. She is disconcerted to hear that Cecily is “Mr. Worthing’s
ward,” as Ernest has never mentioned having a ward, and she confesses to not
being thrilled by the news or by the fact that Cecily is very young and
beautiful. Cecily picks up on Gwendolen’s reference to “Ernest” and hastens to
explain that her guardian is not Mr.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Ernest</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Worthing but his
brother Jack. Gwendolen asks if she’s sure, and Cecily reassures her, adding
that, in fact, she is engaged to be married to Ernest Worthing. Gwendolen
points out that this is impossible as she herself is engaged to Ernest
Worthing. The tea party degenerates into a kind of catfight in which the two
women insult one another with utmost civility.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Toward the climax of this confrontation,
Jack and Algernon arrive, one after the other, each having separately made
arrangements with Dr. Chasuble to be christened Ernest later that day. Each of
the young ladies takes great pleasure in pointing out that the other has been
deceived: Cecily informs Gwendolen that her fiancé is really named Jack and
Gwendolen informs Cecily that hers is really called Algernon. Shocked and
angry, the two women demand to know where Jack’s brother Ernest is, since both
of them are engaged to be married to him, and Jack is forced to admit that he
has no brother and that Ernest is a complete fiction. Both women are furious.
They retire to the house arm in arm, calling each other “sister.” Alone, Jack
and Algernon must sort out their differences. Each taunts the other with having
been found out and they end up squabbling over muffins and teacake.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Act III, Part One<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Cecily and Gwendolen have retreated to
the drawing room of the Manor House to get away from Algernon and Jack. They
are eager to forgive the men and be reconciled. When Algernon and Jack enter
from the garden, Cecily and Gwendolen confront them about their motives. Cecily
asks Algernon why he pretended to be Jack’s brother, and Algernon says it was
in order to meet her. Gwendolen asks Jack if he pretended to have a brother so
as to be able to come to London to see her as often as possible, and he asks if
she can doubt it. Gwendolen says she has the gravest doubts but intends to
crush them.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Cecily and Gwendolen are on the verge of
forgiving Algernon and Jack when they remember that neither of them is any
longer engaged to a man called Ernest. Algernon and Jack explain that each has
made arrangements to be rechristened Ernest before the day is out, and the
young women, bowled over by men’s “physical courage” and capacity for
“self-sacrifice,” are won over.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
As the couples embrace, Lady Bracknell
enters, having bribed Gwendolen’s maid for information about her destination.
On seeing Algernon, she asks whether this house is the house where his friend
Bunbury resides. Algernon, forgetting momentarily that he is supposed to be at
his friend’s bedside, says no, but quickly tries to cover himself and blurts
that Bunbury is dead. He and Lady Bracknell briefly discuss Bunbury’s sudden
demise. Jack then introduces Cecily to Lady Bracknell, and Algernon announces
their engagement. Lady Bracknell asks about Cecily’s background, asking first,
rather acidly, whether she is “connected with any of the larger railway
stations in London.” Jack obligingly volunteers information about Cecily,
answering Lady Bracknell’s presumptuous questions with a withering irony that
goes over Lady Bracknell’s head. Her interest is greatly piqued when she learns
that Cecily is actually worth a great deal of money and stands to inherit even
more when she comes of age.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Jack refuses to give his consent to
Cecily’s marriage to Algernon until Lady Bracknell grants her consent to his
union with Gwendolen, but Lady Bracknell refuses. She summons Gwendolen to her
side and prepares to depart. Before they can leave, however, Dr. Chasuble
arrives to announce that everything is ready for the christenings. Jack
explains that he and Algernon no longer need the christenings immediately and
suggests that the ceremonies be postponed. The rector prepares to withdraw,
explaining that Miss Prism is waiting for him back at the rectory. At the sound
of Miss Prism’s name, Lady Bracknell starts. She asks a number of incisive
questions about Miss Prism then demands that she be sent for. Miss Prism herself
arrives at that moment.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Act III, Part Two<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
When Miss Prism sees Lady Bracknell, she
begins behaving in a frightened and furtive manner. Lady Bracknell asks her
severely about the whereabouts of a certain baby that Miss Prism was supposed
to have taken for a walk twenty-eight years ago. Lady Bracknell proceeds to
recount the circumstances of the baby’s disappearance: Miss Prism left a
certain house in Grosvenor Square with a baby carriage containing a male infant
and never returned, the carriage was found some weeks later in Bayswater
containing “a three-volume novel of more than usually revolting
sentimentality,” and the baby in question was never found. Miss Prism confesses
apologetically that she doesn’t know what happened to the baby. She explains
that on the day in question she left the house with both the baby and a handbag
containing a novel she had been working on, but that at some point she must
have absentmindedly confused the two, placing the manuscript in the carriage
and the baby in the handbag.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
Now Jack joins the discussion, pressing
Miss Prism for further details:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>where</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>did she leave the
handbag?<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Which</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>railway station? What<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>line?</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Jack excuses himself
and hurries offstage, returning a moment or two later with a handbag. He
presents the handbag to Miss Prism and asks her if she can identify it. Miss
Prism looks the handbag over carefully before acknowledging that it<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>is</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>the handbag she
mislaid. She expresses delight at having it back after so many years. Jack,
under the impression that he has discovered his true parentage, throws his arms
melodramatically around Miss Prism with a cry of “Mother!” Miss Prism, shocked,
reminds Jack that she is unmarried. Jack, misunderstanding her point, launches
into a sentimental speech about forgiveness and redemption through suffering
and society’s double standard about male and female transgression. With great
dignity, Miss Prism gestures toward Lady Bracknell as the proper source of
information about Jack’s history and identity. Lady Bracknell explains that
Jack is the son of her poor sister, which makes him Algernon’s older brother.</div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
The revelation removes all obstacles to
Jack’s union with Gwendolen, but the problem of Jack’s name remains. Gwendolen
points out that they don’t know his true name. Though Lady Bracknell is sure
that as the elder son he was named after his father, no one can recall what
General Moncrieff’s first name was. Fortunately, Jack’s bookshelves contain
recent military records, and he pulls down and consults the appropriate volume.
Jack’s father’s Christian names turn out to have been “Ernest John.” For all
these years, Jack has unwittingly been telling the truth: his name<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>is</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ernest, it is also
John, and he does indeed have an unprincipled younger brother—Algernon.
Somewhat taken aback by this turn of events, Jack turns to Gwendolen and asks
if she can forgive him for the fact that he’s been telling the truth his entire
life. She tells him she can forgive him, as she feels he is sure to change.
They embrace, as do Algernon and Cecily and Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble, and
Jack acknowledges that he has discovered “the vital Importance of Being
Earnest.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="page1"></a></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-55202824229494368582013-12-09T06:24:00.001-08:002013-12-09T06:24:23.912-08:00Pike - Ted Hughes (Click the Link)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="http://matthewspoetryanalysis.blogspot.in/2013/05/the-pike-ted-hughes.html">http://matthewspoetryanalysis.blogspot.in/2013/05/the-pike-ted-hughes.html</a></div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-9824760198430663802013-12-09T06:05:00.003-08:002013-12-09T06:25:04.482-08:00Church Going - Philip Larkin (Click the Link)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="http://easylitnotes.blogspot.in/2012/03/analysis-of-philip-larkins-church-going.html">http://easylitnotes.blogspot.in/2012/03/analysis-of-philip-larkins-church-going.html</a></div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-86616654599970641702013-06-25T04:19:00.001-07:002013-06-25T04:19:20.832-07:00Language and Linguistics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="t0" style="color: #002878; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 113px; width: 416px;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tr0 td0" style="height: 17px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom; width: 405px;"><div class="p0 ft0" style="line-height: 15px; white-space: nowrap;">
The development of writing</div>
</td><td class="tr0 td1" style="height: 17px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom; width: 11px;"><div class="p0 ft1" style="font-size: 1px; line-height: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">
<br /></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="p1 ft2" style="color: #002878; font-family: Arial; font-size: 21px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 24px; margin-top: 17px; padding-left: 113px;">
Pictograms and ideograms</div>
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Cave drawings may serve to record some event (e.g. Humans 3, Buffaloes 1), but they are not usually thought of as any type of specifically linguistic message. They are usually treated as part of a tradition of pictorial art. When some of the ‘pictures’ came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of <nobr>picture-writing,</nobr> or<span class="ft3" style="font-weight: bold;">pictograms</span>. In this way, a form such as <img id="inl_img1" src="http://www.pdfonline.com/convert-pdf-to-html/DocStorage/a294795a93944914b879cf1e14b3104c/sample_21_images/sample_211xi2.jpg" style="height: 17px; position: relative; width: 15px;" /> might come to be used for the sun. An essential part of this use of a representative symbol is that everyone should use a similar form to convey a roughly similar meaning. That is, a conventional relationship must exist between the symbol and its interpretation.</div>
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In time, this picture might develop into a more fixed symbolic form, such as <img id="inl_img2" src="http://www.pdfonline.com/convert-pdf-to-html/DocStorage/a294795a93944914b879cf1e14b3104c/sample_21_images/sample_211xi3.jpg" style="height: 11px; position: relative; width: 11px;" />, and come to be used for ‘heat’ and ‘daytime’, as well as for ‘sun’. Note that as the symbol extends from ‘sun’ to ‘heat’, it is moving from something visible to something conceptual (and no longer a picture). This type of symbol is then considered to be part of a system of <nobr>idea-writing,</nobr> or<span class="ft3" style="font-weight: bold;">ideograms</span>. The distinction between pictograms and ideograms is essentially a difference in the relationship between the symbol and the entity it represents. The more <nobr>‘picture-like’</nobr> forms are pictograms and the more abstract derived forms are ideograms.</div>
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A key property of both pictograms and ideograms is that they do not represent words or sounds in a particular language. Modern pictograms, such as those represented in the accompanying illustration, are language- independent and can be understood with much the same basic conventional meaning in a lot of different places where a number of different languages are spoken.</div>
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It is generally thought that there were pictographic or ideographic origins for a large number of symbols that turn up in later writing systems. For example, in Egyptian hieroglyphics, the symbol <img id="inl_img3" src="http://www.pdfonline.com/convert-pdf-to-html/DocStorage/a294795a93944914b879cf1e14b3104c/sample_21_images/sample_211xi4.jpg" style="height: 16px; position: relative; width: 18px;" /> was used to refer to a house and derived from the diagrammatic representation of the <nobr>floor-plan</nobr> of a house. In Chinese writing, the character <img id="inl_img4" src="http://www.pdfonline.com/convert-pdf-to-html/DocStorage/a294795a93944914b879cf1e14b3104c/sample_21_images/sample_211xi5.jpg" style="height: 16px; position: relative; width: 14px;" /> was used for a river, and had its origins in the pictorial representation of a stream flowing between two banks. However, it is important to note that neither the Egyptian nor the Chinese written symbols are actually ‘pictures’ of a house or a river. They are more abstract. When we create symbols in a writing system, there is always an abstraction away from the physical world.</div>
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When the relationship between the symbol and the entity or idea becomes sufficiently abstract, we can be more confident that the symbol is probably being used to represent words in a language. In early Egyptian writing, the ideogram for water was <img id="inl_img5" src="http://www.pdfonline.com/convert-pdf-to-html/DocStorage/a294795a93944914b879cf1e14b3104c/sample_21_images/sample_211xi6.jpg" style="height: 14px; position: relative; width: 17px;" />. Much later, the derived symbol came to be used for the actual word meaning ‘water’. When symbols are used to repre- sent words in a language, they are described as examples of <nobr>word-writing,</nobr> or ‘logograms’.</div>
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Logograms</div>
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Logographic systems, or logographies, include the earliest true writing systems; the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa, China, and Central America used some form of logographic writing.</div>
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A purely logographic script would be impractical for most languages, and none is known apart from one devised for the artificial language <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toki_Pona" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Toki Pona">Toki Pona</a>, a purposely limited language with only 120 morphemes. A more recent attempt is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlango" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Zlango">Zlango</a>, intended for use in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_messaging" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Text messaging">text messaging</a>, currently including around 300 "icons." All logographic scripts ever used for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Natural languages">natural languages</a>rely on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebus#The_rebus_principle" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rebus">rebus principle</a> to extend a relatively limited set of logograms: A subset of characters is used for their phonetic values, either consonantal or syllabic. The term<i>logosyllabary</i> is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the phonetic domain is the syllable. In both Ancient Egyptian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieroglyph" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyphs</a> and in Chinese, there has been the additional development of fusing such phonetic elements with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinative" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Determinative">determinatives</a>; such "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_(Chinese_character)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Radical (Chinese character)">radical</a> and phonetic" characters make up the bulk of the script, and both languages relegated simple rebuses to the spelling of foreign loan words and words from non-standard dialects.</div>
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Wedge shaped writing</div>
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Cuneiform Writing</div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-64621673272929427652013-03-24T22:31:00.000-07:002013-03-24T22:31:13.237-07:00IV Sem (Shakespeare) Henry IV and As you like it..<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="color: red;">Henry IV, Part 1<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="color: red;">William Shakespeare<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Plot
Overview<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Cambria, serif;">When
the play opens, military news interrupts the aging King Henry’s plans to lead a
crusade. The Welsh rebel Glyndwr has defeated King Henry’s army in the South,
and the young Harry Percy (nicknamed Hotspur), who is supposedly loyal to King
Henry, is refusing to send to the king the soldiers whom he has captured in the
North. King Henry summons Hotspur back to the royal court so that he can
explain his actions.</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"> Meanwhile, King Henry’s son, Prince Harry, sits drinking in a bar with
criminals and highwaymen. King Henry is very disappointed in his son; it is
common knowledge that Harry, the heir to the throne, conducts himself in a
manner unbefitting royalty. He spends most of his time in taverns on the seedy
side of London, hanging around with vagrants and other shady characters.
Harry’s closest friend among the crew of rascals is Falstaff, a sort of
substitute father figure. Falstaff is a worldly and fat old man who steals and
lies for a living. Falstaff is also an extraordinarily witty person who lives
with great gusto. Harry claims that his spending time with these men is
actually part of a scheme on his part to impress the public when he eventually
changes his ways and adopts a more noble personality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Falstaff’s
friend Poins arrives at the inn and announces that he has plotted the robbery
of a group of wealthy travelers. Although Harry initially refuses to
participate, Poins explains to him in private that he is actually playing a
practical joke on Falstaff. Poins’s plan is to hide before the robbery occurs,
pretending to ditch Falstaff. After the robbery, Poins and Harry will rob
Falstaff and then make fun of him when he tells the story of being robbed,
which he will almost certainly fabricate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Hotspur
arrives at King Henry’s court and details the reasons that his family is
frustrated with the king: the Percys were instrumental in helping Henry
overthrow his predecessor, but Henry has failed to repay the favor. After King
Henry leaves, Hotspur’s family members explain to Hotspur their plan to build
an alliance to overthrow the king.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Harry
and Poins, meanwhile, successfully carry out their plan to dupe Falstaff and
have a great deal of fun at his expense. As they are all drinking back at the
tavern, however, a messenger arrives for Harry. Harry’s father has received
news of the civil war that is brewing and has sent for his son; Harry is to
return to the royal court the next day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Although
the Percys have gathered a formidable group of allies around them—leaders of
large rebel armies from Scotland and Wales as well as powerful English nobles
and clergymen who have grievances against King Henry—the alliance has begun to
falter. Several key figures announce that they will not join in the effort to
overthrow the king, and the danger that these defectors might alert King Henry
of the rebellion necessitates going to war at once.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Heeding his
father’s request, Harry returns to the palace. King Henry expresses his deep
sorrow and anger at his son’s behavior and implies that Hotspur’s valor might
actually give him more right to the throne than Prince Harry’s royal birth.
Harry decides that it is time to reform, and he vows that he will abandon his
wild ways and vanquish Hotspur in battle in order to reclaim his good name.
Drafting his tavern friends to fight in King Henry’s army, Harry accompanies
his father to the battlefront.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
civil war is decided in a great battle at Shrewsbury. Harry boldly saves his
father’s life in battle and finally wins back his father’s approval and
affection. Harry also challenges and defeats Hotspur in single combat. King
Henry’s forces win, and most of the leaders of the Percy family are put to
death. Falstaff manages to survive the battle by avoiding any actual fighting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Powerful rebel forces remain in Britain, however, so King Henry must
send his sons and his forces to the far reaches of his kingdom to deal with
them. When the play ends, the ultimate outcome of the war has not yet been
determined; one battle has been won, but another remains to be fought
(Shakespeare’s sequel to this play,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"> </span></span><span class="small-caps"><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">2</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">Henry IV,</span></i><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">begins where</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"> </span></span><span class="small-caps"><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">1</span></i></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;"> </span></i></span><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">Henry IV</span></i><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">leaves off).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Act II,
scene iv [Play out of Play]<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Summary<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">At his
family home (Warkworth Castle, in the far north of England), Hotspur reads a
letter that has just arrived from a nobleman. Hotspur has asked the nobleman
for support in the rebellion that the Percy family is planning against Henry.
But the letter relays a refusal, saying that the Percy plot is not planned out
well enough and that its allies are not strong or reliable enough to face so
great a foe as Henry. Hotspur becomes very angry at the letter writer and
disdains the writer’s cowardice. He is concerned, however, that the writer will
decide to reveal the plot to Henry, so he decides that he must set out that
night to join his allies and start the rebellion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Hotspur’s wife,
Lady Percy (also called Kate), comes in to speak to her husband. When Hotspur
tells her that he will be leaving the castle within two hours, she becomes
upset. She points out that for the past two weeks Hotspur has not eaten
properly, slept well, or made love to her. Furthermore, he keeps on breaking
out into a sweat in the middle of the night and crying out, babbling in his
sleep about guns, cannons, prisoners, and soldiers. Lady Percy thinks that it
is time Hotspur explained exactly what he’s been planning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Hotspur, however, ignores Lady Percy, instead instructing his servant to
get his horse ready. Enraged, Lady Percy stops pleading and starts demanding
answers. She suspects that Hotspur’s machinations all have something to do with
her brother, Lord Mortimer, and his claim to the throne. She threatens to break
Hotspur’s “little finger” (a euphemism for his penis) if he does not tell her
what is going on (II.iv.</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">79</span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 8.25pt 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Hotspur
abruptly turns on Lady Percy and angrily insults her, saying that he does not
love her and that this is no world for womanly thoughts or for love. Instead,
he declares, there must be war and fighting. He will not tell her what he is
doing because he believes that women cannot be trusted, and she won’t be able
to reveal what she does not know. He concedes only that he will send for her,
and that she may follow him on horseback the next day. Though -dissatisfied,
Lady Percy cannot get any more information from her belligerent husband.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 27.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="color: red;">As You Like It<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="color: red;">William Shakespeare</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; border-bottom: dotted #999999 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: dotted #999999 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;">
<h3 style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: none; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 7.5pt; padding: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Plot
Overview<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 8.25pt 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Sir
Rowland de Bois has recently died, and, according to the custom of
primogeniture, the vast majority of his estate has passed into the possession
of his eldest son, Oliver. Although Sir Rowland has instructed Oliver to take
good care of his brother, Orlando, Oliver refuses to do so. Out of pure spite,
he denies Orlando the education, training, and property befitting a gentleman.
Charles, a wrestler from the court of Duke Frederick, arrives to warn Oliver of
a rumor that Orlando will challenge Charles to a fight on the following day.
Fearing censure if he should beat a nobleman, Charles begs Oliver to intervene,
but Oliver convinces the wrestler that Orlando is a dishonorable sportsman who
will take whatever dastardly means necessary to win. Charles vows to pummel
Orlando, which delights Oliver.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Duke Senior has
been usurped of his throne by his brother, Duke Frederick, and has fled to the
Forest of Ardenne, where he lives like Robin Hood with a band of loyal
followers. Duke Frederick allows Senior’s daughter, Rosalind, to remain at
court because of her inseparable friendship with his own daughter, Celia. The
day arrives when Orlando is scheduled to fight Charles, and the women witness
Orlando’s defeat of the court wrestler. Orlando and Rosalind instantly fall in
love with one another, though Rosalind keeps this fact a secret from everyone
but Celia. Orlando returns home from the wrestling match, only to have his
faithful servant Adam warn him about Oliver’s plot against Orlando’s life.
Orlando decides to leave for the safety of Ardenne. Without warning, Duke
Frederick has a change of heart regarding Rosalind and banishes her from court.
She, too, decides to flee to the Forest of Ardenne and leaves with Celia, who
cannot bear to be without Rosalind, and Touchstone, the court jester. To ensure
the safety of their journey, Rosalind assumes the dress of a young man and
takes the name Ganymede, while Celia dresses as a common shepherdess and calls
herself Aliena.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 8.25pt 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Duke
Frederick is furious at his daughter’s disappearance. When he learns that the
flight of his daughter and niece coincides with the disappearance of Orlando,
the duke orders Oliver to lead the manhunt, threatening to confiscate Oliver’s
lands and property should he fail. Frederick also decides it is time to destroy
his brother once and for all and begins to raise an army.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 8.25pt 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Duke
Senior lives in the Forest of Ardenne with a band of lords who have gone into
voluntary exile. He praises the simple life among the trees, happy to be absent
from the machinations of court life. Orlando, exhausted by travel and desperate
to find food for his starving companion, Adam, barges in on the duke’s camp and
rudely demands that they not eat until he is given food. Duke Senior calms
Orlando and, when he learns that the young man is the son of his dear former
friend, accepts him into his company. Meanwhile, Rosalind and Celia, disguised
as Ganymede and Aliena, arrive in the forest and meet a lovesick young shepherd
named Silvius who pines away for the disdainful Phoebe. The two women purchase
a modest cottage, and soon enough Rosalind runs into the equally lovesick
Orlando. Taking her to be a young man, Orlando confides in Rosalind that his
affections are overpowering him. Rosalind, as Ganymede, claims to be an expert
in exorcising such emotions and promises to cure Orlando of lovesickness if he
agrees to pretend that Ganymede is Rosalind and promises to come woo her every
day. Orlando agrees, and the love lessons begin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 8.25pt 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Meanwhile,
Phoebe becomes increasingly cruel in her rejection of Silvius. When Rosalind
intervenes, disguised as Ganymede, Phoebe falls hopelessly in love with
Ganymede. One day, Orlando fails to show up for his tutorial with Ganymede.
Rosalind, reacting to her infatuation with Orlando, is distraught until Oliver appears.
Oliver describes how Orlando stumbled upon him in the forest and saved him from
being devoured by a hungry lioness. Oliver and Celia, still disguised as the
shepherdess Aliena, fall instantly in love and agree to marry. As time passes,
Phoebe becomes increasingly insistent in her pursuit of Ganymede, and Orlando
grows tired of pretending that a boy is his dear Rosalind. Rosalind decides to
end the charade. She promises that Ganymede will wed Phoebe, if Ganymede will
ever marry a woman, and she makes everyone pledge to meet the next day at the
wedding. They all agree.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 8.25pt 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
day of the wedding arrives, and Rosalind gathers the various couples: Phoebe
and Silvius; Celia and Oliver; Touchstone and Audrey, a goatherd he intends to
marry; and Orlando. The group congregates before Duke Senior and his men.
Rosalind, still disguised as Ganymede, reminds the lovers of their various
vows, then secures a promise from Phoebe that if for some reason she refuses to
marry Ganymede she will marry Silvius, and a promise from the duke that he
would allow his daughter to marry Orlando if she were available. Rosalind
leaves with the disguised Celia, and the two soon return as themselves,
accompanied by Hymen, the god of marriage. Hymen officiates at the ceremony and
marries Rosalind and Orlando, Celia and Oliver, Phoebe and Silvius, and Audrey
and Touchstone. The festive wedding celebration is interrupted by even more
festive news: while marching with his army to attack Duke Senior, Duke
Frederick came upon a holy man who convinced him to put aside his worldly
concerns and assume a monastic life. -Frederick changes his ways and returns
the throne to Duke Senior. The guests continue dancing, happy in the knowledge
that they will soon return to the royal court.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; border-bottom: dotted #999999 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: dotted #999999 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;">
<h3 style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: none; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 7.5pt; padding: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Act IV,
scenes i–ii<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
</div>
<h4 style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 7.5pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Summary: Act IV, scene i<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Men have died from time to time, and worms have eaten them, but not for
love.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Cambria, serif;">Jaques approaches Rosalind, who is still in her disguise as
Ganymede, wishing to become better acquainted. Rosalind criticizes Jaques for
the extremity of his melancholy. When Jaques claims that “’tis good to be sad
and say nothing,” Rosalind compares such activity to being “a post” (IV.i.</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: Cambria, serif; font-variant: small-caps; padding: 0in;">8</span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Cambria, serif;">–</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: Cambria, serif; font-variant: small-caps; padding: 0in;">9</span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Cambria, serif;">). Jaques defends himself, outlining for Rosalind
the unique composition of his sadness, but Rosalind gets the better of him and
he departs.</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"> Orlando
arrives an hour late for his lesson in love. As agreed, he addresses Ganymede
as if the young man were his beloved Rosalind and asks her to forgive his
tardiness. Rosalind refuses, insisting that a true lover could not bear to
squander “a part of the thousand part of a minute in the affairs of love”
(IV.i.</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">40</span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">–</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">41</span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">). She goes on to suggest that Orlando’s love is worse than a snail’s,
for though a snail comes slowly, he carries his house on his back. Eventually,
though, Rosalind relents and invites Orlando to woo her. The lesson begins:
when he says that he desires to kiss her before speaking, she suggests that he
save his kiss for the moment when conversation lags. What, Orlando worries,
should he do if his kiss is denied? Rosalind reassures him that a denied kiss
would only give him “new matter” to discuss with his lover (IV.i.</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">69</span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">–</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">70</span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">). When Rosalind
refuses his affections, Orlando claims he will die. She responds that, despite
the poet’s romantic imagination, no man in the entire history of the world has
died from a love-related cause.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Rosalind then changes her mood, assuming a “more coming-on disposition”
(IV.i.</span><span class="small-caps"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-variant: small-caps; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; padding: 0in;">96</span></span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">). She accepts and
returns Orlando’s declarations of love and urges Celia to play the part of a
priest and marry them. Rosalind reminds Orlando that women often become
disagreeable after marriage, but Orlando does not believe this truism of his
love. He begs leave in order to dine with Duke Senior, promising to return
within two hours. Rosalind teasingly chastises him for parting with her but
warns him not to be a minute late in keeping his promise. After Orlando departs,
Celia berates Rosalind for so badly characterizing the female sex. Rosalind
responds by exclaiming how vast her love for Orlando has grown. Only Cupid, she
says, can fathom the depth of her affection.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-50731460283099540432013-03-24T22:15:00.000-07:002013-03-24T22:15:13.670-07:00Patterns (III B.A English)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">"Patterns"</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
walk down the garden paths,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
all the daffodils<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Are
blowing, and the bright blue squills. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
walk down the patterned garden paths <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
my stiff, brocaded gown.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">With
my powdered hair and jewelled fan, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
too am a rare<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Pattern.
As I wander down<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
garden paths.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">My
dress is richly figured, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
the train<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Makes
a pink and silver stain <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">On
the gravel, and the thrift <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Of
the borders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Just
a plate of current fashion,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Tripping
by in high-heeled, ribboned shoes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Not
a softness anywhere about me, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Only
whale-bone and brocade. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
I sink on a seat in the shade <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Of
a lime tree. For my passion <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Wars
against the stiff brocade. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
daffodils and squills<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Flutter
in the breeze<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">As
they please.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
I weep;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">For
the lime tree is in blossom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
one small flower has dropped upon my bosom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
the splashing of waterdrops <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
the marble fountain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Comes
down the garden paths. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
dripping never stops. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Underneath
my stiffened gown<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Is
the softness of a woman bathing in a marble basin,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">A
basin in the midst of hedges grown<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">So
thick, she cannot see her lover hiding,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">But
she guesses he is near,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
the sliding of the water<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Seems
the stroking of a dear<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Hand
upon her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">What
is Summer in a fine brocaded gown!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
should like to see it lying in a heap upon the ground. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">All
the pink and silver crumpled up on the ground.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
would be the pink and silver as I ran along the paths, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
he would stumble after,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Bewildered
by my laughter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
should see the sun flashing from his sword-hilt and the buckles on his shoes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
would choose<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">To
lead him in a maze along the patterned paths,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">A
bright and laughing maze for my heavy-booted lover, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Till
he caught me in the shade,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
the buttons of his waistcoat bruised my body as he clasped me,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Aching,
melting, unafraid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">With
the shadows of the leaves and the sundrops, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
the plopping of the waterdrops,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">All
about us in the open afternoon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
am very like to swoon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">With
the weight of this brocade,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">For
the sun sifts through the shade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Underneath
the fallen blossom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
my bosom,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Is
a letter I have hid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">It
was brought to me this morning by a rider from the Duke. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">“Madam,
we regret to inform you that Lord Hartwell <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Died
in action Thursday sen’night.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">As
I read it in the white, morning sunlight,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
letters squirmed like snakes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">“Any
answer, Madam,” said my footman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">“No,”
l told him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">“See
that the messenger takes some refreshment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">No,
no answer.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
I walked into the garden,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Up
and down the patterned paths,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
my stiff, correct brocade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
blue and yellow flowers stood up proudly in the sun, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Each
one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
stood upright too,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Held
rigid to the pattern<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">By
the stiffness of my gown. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Up
and down I walked, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Up
and down.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
a month he would have been my husband. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
a month, here, underneath this lime, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">We
would have broke the pattern;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">He
for me, and I for him,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">He
as Colonel, I as Lady,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">On
this shady seat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">He
had a whim<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">That
sunlight carried blessing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
I answered, “It shall be as you have said.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Now
he is dead.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
Summer and in Winter I shall walk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Up
and down<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
patterned garden paths <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
my stiff, brocaded gown. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The
squills and daffodils<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Will
give place to pillared roses, and to asters, and to snow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">I
shall go<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Up
and down,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
my gown.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Gorgeously
arrayed,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Boned
and stayed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">And
the softness of my body will be guarded from embrace <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">By
each button, hook, and lace.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">For
the man who should loose me is dead,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Fighting
with the Duke in Flanders,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In
a pattern called a war.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: -12.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Christ!
What are patterns for?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Critical Analysis of Amy Lowell's
"Patterns"<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 12.75pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; overflow: hidden;">
<span style="font-family: Cambria, serif;">Breaking the "Patterned" Mold<br />
<br />
When one hears the words, " I sink on a seat in the shade," they will
most likely form a visual image in their head, such as a person sitting under a
tree. Amy Lowell, an imagist, uses sharp images, precise wording, and
figurative speech as a means of poetic expression to arouse the senses of the
reader. In "Patterns," Amy Lowell explores the hopeful liberty of
women in the early 20th century through a central theme. A woman’s dream of
escaping the boundaries that society has placed on her dissipates when she
learns of her lover’s untimely death. Of the many images in this poem, the
constant motions of the flowers and water drops, the dress the woman is
wearing, and her daydreams of her lover are most crucial in developing this
theme of freedom.<br />
<br />
In the beginning of the poem, as well as throughout the work, the speaker
describes daffodils and other types of flowers moving freely in the wind. Using
imagery to appeal to the reader’s sense of sight, these flowers are given
motion, and they are described as, "…blowing," and "Flutter[ing]
in the breeze,". This creates a sense of freedom and flexibility. The
woman in the poem, presumably Amy, wishes to be like the moving flowers,
carefree and jaunty. In the second stanza of the poem, the woman begins to
describe the water in the marble fountain. The, "…plashing of water
drops," and, "…plopping of the water drops," describe liquid in
motion. The fact that she notices such little details in a fountain shows how
intent the woman is on being free and able to move about as she pleases. The
unconstrained movement of the flowers and the water manifest a way of life that
the woman would like to live. What is keeping her from the liberation that she
longs for?<br />
<br />
The images in the poem name the binding dress as the culprit, but upon reading
deeper into the signs of the imagery, one will find that there is a more complicated
reason for her misery. The "…stiff, brocaded gown" is mentioned many
times throughout the poem. Of course, back in that time, the woman was not only
in a rigid, uncomfortable dress in the heat of summer, but she was also most
likely wearing a corset. The Random House Webster’s College Dictionary gives
the definition of brocaded as, "a fabric woven with an elaborate raised
design, often using gold or silver thread." This stiff, imprisoning piece
of clothing symbolizes the boundaries that society has placed on women during
their time. They had to act properly, look nice, and uphold all
standards—especially if they were to be courted and married to a respectable
man. The description of the train on the woman’s dress also has specific
imagery. The woman talks about how, "…the train/ Makes a pink and silver
stain/ On the gravel," The first image a person gets in their head is one
of a train on a dress dragging across the gravel and leaving behind colours of
pink and silver. This metaphor, however, has some underlying meaning, and
symbolizes the "training" that she received to act properly as a
lady. This training leaves behind a blemish, or stain, of high order (pink) and
eloquence (silver) that she merely knows how to uphold, and does not want to be
a part of her true self. She feels that learning the way the public wants her
to act and look has somehow hindered her true being. Although it was torturous
for the woman to stay within all of society’s stan-dards, she complied only
because she knew that her lover held the key to the lock on her liberation. In
marrying him, she felt as though she would be set free to make her own
decisions. The woman thought that he would allow her to lead him down the many
paths in their lives.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<br />
Next, she talks about how it will be when her lover returns to her. She would,
"… run along the paths/ And he would stumble after," and also,
"…choose/ To lead him in a maze along the patterned paths". These
lines show how the presence of her lover allows her to lead him, thereby breaking
free from the boundaries held on her. She is also running through a maze, not
walking along the paths. This shows that she is no longer doing what others
have done and have told her to do, but she is creating her own path and
displaying free will. This imagery is used to show that in her future with this
man, she will not have to live her life the way others have patterned it out
for her. Through his love for her, she will be allowed to break the mold and be
her own person. Unfortunately, her lover dies at war and she is back to where
she began, wearing a stiff dress, following the paths already made, and waiting
for another man to come along to rescue her from this prison cell.<br />
<br />
I wonder what became of this woman in the poem. I hope that she finally found
another love to rescue her from the confines of tradition. I am truly grateful
that I live in a world today where people aren’t oppressed as they were back in
the 1800s- early 1900s. It must have been discouraging to know that a woman’s
happiness and freedom in life depends on what a man will allow you to have, and
it really took a strong woman to overcome the injustice shown to them. From Amy
Lowell’s poetry, I can tell that she had a passion to change women’s lives. The
way she describes the free movement of flowers blowing in the wind and
contrasting it with an image of a stiff, brocaded gown really helps you to
understand how she is feeling. Unfortunately, she had to continue with her
"patterned" way of life for longer than she hoped. I, on the other hand,
am free to chose my own path, or make up a new one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-41603914976217350062013-03-21T22:34:00.005-07:002013-03-21T22:34:58.657-07:00II nd Semester (General English)<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Sir Isaac
Newton</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-left: 242.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">-Nathaniel
Hawthorne</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Sir Isaac
Newton a great scientist, mathematicians of all time, and it’s a biographical
work done by Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64).<span>
</span>He is an American novelist and short story writer.<span> </span>His well known novels are ‘<i>The Scralet Letter</i>’, ‘<i>The house of the seven Gables</i>’.<span> </span>In this essay Nathaniel Hawthorne has portrayed
the life and inventions of Sir Isaac Newton and also his varied interest in the
subjects such as mathematics, dynamics, astronomy, optics and cosmology.<span> </span>One of Newton’s major works is the <i>Principia Mathematica.<span> </span></i>Hawthorne also describes Newton’s various
achievements in this essay.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Childhood
of Newton</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He was
born on Christmas day, 1642 in a small village of Woolsthrope in England.<span> </span>He lost his father when we were a small
child.<span> </span>His mother married again so
Newton was left under the care of his grandmother who was very kind and sent
him to school.<span> </span>In his early age he was
not a very bright student and showed his full interest in making out mechanical
tools and articles.<span> </span>He made his own
tools, so his neighbours looked him with a vast admiration.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span><span> </span>His grandmother never stopped talking about
him she use to say ‘He’ll make a capital workman one of these days’ and ‘no
fear he will do well in the world and be a rich man before he dies’.<span> </span>Some said he would become a very good
furniture maker with the help of mahogany, rosewood, or polished oak, inlaid
(fixed or decorated) with ivory.<span> </span>Few of
his neighours said he would become a very good architect and build many
churches, mansions in future.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">His
inventions</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>As a boy
he had a taste for mathematics.<span> </span>This
made people to say that he would become a very great clock maker one day.<span> </span>He made a clock which worked by dropping of
water and he also invented sun dial which he placed it in his garden.<span> </span>Later he discovered a simple method of
measuring the strength of the wind by jumping against it and calculating its
force by the length of the jump.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He also
constructed a small toy windmill with a help of a model which was near his
house.<span> </span>Even a very little blow of air
sets the sail to motion. He constructed a model of windmill using traps which
was set to catch rats and squirrels.<span> </span>He
decided to use a hopper (funnel shaped container) which would convert wheat
into snow-white powder.<span> </span>He later found a
mouse as a miller which fulfilled its duty as honest as many human millers.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Gravitational
theory </span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>As Newton
grew up he was curious about the stars, planets, galaxies and wondered what
kept them in their courses (progress, movement).<span> </span>One day he sat under the apple tree and
suddenly an apple fell on his head made him to think about the force of
gravitation.<span> </span>He did not stop with his
enquiry and stayed very patiently till he discovered the laws of gravitation
and also the laws by which the planets are guided and arranged through the sky.
His three laws of gravitation are as follows:</span></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Any two
bodies attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">The
acceleration a of an object is proportional to the force F acting on it
and inversely proportional to its mass m.</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Every
action has equal and opposite reaction.</span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Symbol
of patience</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Newton was a
man of exceptional sweetness of temper (mood), and this is clear from his
attitude to his dog Diamond.<span> </span>It upset the
lighted candle and all the written scripts, the patient work of twenty years
were burnt to ashes.<span> </span>Newton never showed
his anger towards Diamond he just patted the dog and said it did not know what
mischief it had done.<span> </span>This clearly
portrays his patience and temper</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He later
felt so mentally disturbed after those written scripts were burnt, which pushed
him to a state of insane (mad).<span> </span>Before
his death he wanted his name of Newton should be written in the letters of
light formed by the stars upon the midnight sky.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span><span>
</span><span> </span><span> </span>Socrates</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span><span>
</span></span></b><b><span>-<span> </span></span></b><b><span>Sir
Richard Livingstone</span></b><b><span></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span>Introduction
</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Socrates
is a biographical work written by Sir Richard Livingstone (1880-1960).<span> </span>He was the President of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford and Vice chancellor of the University of Oxford.<span> </span>He was interested in Greek civilization.<span> </span>His lectures on education appeared under the
title <i>Some Tasks for Education.<span> </span></i>In this essay Sir Richard Livingstone has
given the biographical sketches of Socrates regarding his life, works and
death.<span> </span>Socrates (469-399 B.C) was born
in the city of Athens which belongs to the country Greece. He was a great
philosopher who was engaged in questioning Truth and Virtue (purity), but
finally faced death since he refused to give up the truth.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Topics
for discussion in the lesson:</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>The
‘Apology’ describes the last address of Socrates to the Athenians after the
sentence of death was pronounced.<span> </span>The
second half of the lesson ‘Phaedo’ describes his last moments.<span> </span>The author translated the dialogues of Plato
in English. Socrates feels that the Athenians will get a bad name from the
criticizers of the city who is about to kill a so called wise man.<span> </span>If they had waited a little, their desire
would have been achieved by the course of nature. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Views
of Socrates about death</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He feels
that ‘death’ is supposed to be good.<span> </span>He
also talks about the two alternatives of death.<span>
</span>Death is a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or it is the
migration of soul from this world to another. In another world no one will put
a man to death for asking questions and he feels too happy to be immortal.<span> </span>He is not feeling angry with his condemners or
with his accusers; since they have not done any harm to him rather they did
good unknowingly.<span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He asks
for a favour from those who victimized him, to punish his sons as they grew up,
if his sons seem to care about riches, or anything more than virtue.<span> </span>If they do this, both he and his son’s would
be happy to receive justice at their hands.<span>
</span>He feels that the hour had come for his departure from this mortal
world, and finally uttering that the true justice is better known to God and
only to him.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Golden
words</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Socrates
use to talk with his friends and share new ideas with them but he never put
anything in the form of writing.<span> </span>Plato,
his close friend made notes of what Socrates spoke and they were written down
and published after the death of Socrates.<span>
</span>Many thought that he is the wisest (one who have good knowledge) of all
men.<span> </span>Later he decided to spend his time
towards Philosophy or love of wisdom.<span>
</span>His wise sayings are as follows;</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">§ ‘Truth is beautiful and enduring’</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">§ ‘The uncriticized life is not worth living’</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">§<span> </span>The
noblest of all studies is the study of ‘What a man should be and what he should
do’.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Death
Trial</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>When he
was at the age of 70 some people started to suspect and criticize him.<span> </span>When he asked people to think they thought
that Socrates was trying to destruct (destroy) the peace of Athens city.<span> </span>They began to think that he was against the
government and he was later accused as criminal.<span> </span>But he was not worried at all.<span> </span>There was a custom (practice) that every
accused will be given a chance to speak and to defend himself.<span> </span>For this Socrates said ‘I have been preparing
this all my life’.<span> </span>Meletus and Anytus
were the two who said Socrates was going against the government and disloyal.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He was
later sentenced to death.<span> </span>He was given a
cup of poison.<span> </span>His friends tried to save
Socrates life by giving bribe to the guards of the jail. But Socrates refused
it.<span> </span>The day of putting him to death came
and jailor gave him the cup of poison and he asked Socrates to drink it.<span> </span>Socrates wanted to give a part of poison as
an offering to God but the jailor declined (didn’t accept) it.<span> </span>He prayed for good luck on his journey to
death and he drank the poison.<span> </span>Later he
asked Crito to give a cock as a sacrifice to God of Healing (Asclepius, the
name of the God of Healing). He asked Crito not to forget the offering.<span> </span>He covered his eyes with cloak (loose cloth)
and soon died.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>This was
the end of a good man, the noblest, the wisest and the best of all men. Thus
this summary consists of all the happenings in the life of a great philosopher
Socrates which has been clearly portrayed by Sir Richard Livingstone. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span>History of Chess</span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.75in; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span><span>-<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><b><span>Barbara Mack</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.75in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.75in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Barbara
Mack was born on October 26, 1952, in Des Moines, Iowa.<span> </span>Her father owned a Venetian blind and Cloth
merchant business and her mother stayed home.<span>
</span>She went to Catholic schools and she took her undergraduate degree from
the Iowa State University.<span> </span>She then
worked at <i>The Register</i> as a
reporter.<span> </span>In the essay she talks about the
real life tragedies, ceremonies and grandeurs of medieval times which have been
portrayed in the form of Chess board.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">People
of Medieval Times</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Chess is the oldest skill game in the
world.<span> </span>It is more than just a game of
skill, the games imitates the way people lived in medieval times i.e., during
8-14<sup>th</sup> Century.<span> </span>If we look at
the way a chess board is set up we can understand that chess is a game about
history.<span> </span>Six different pieces represents
the life with its many ceremonies, grandeur and war, but no one really knows in
which country the game originated.<span> </span>It
was played many centuries ago in China, India and Persia.<span> </span>During 8<sup>th</sup> centuries, Arab army
known as Moors captured Persia.<span> </span>The
Moors learned chess from them.<span> </span>When
Moors later captured Spain, the soldiers taught the people of Spain.<span> </span>From them, the game quickly spread throughout
Europe.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Role
of Pieces</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>The
pawns on the chess represent Serfs (slaves) or laborers.<span> </span>They are more in number than any other piece
on the board and their role is to sacrifice their lives for the welfare of
landowners or chattel (belongs to someone).<span>
</span>Life was tuff and hard for them, since they worked hard and died
young.<span> </span>They were left unprotected when
there was war.<span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span><span> </span>Castle piece on the chess board
represents the home or refuge, and it was just a home in the medieval
times.<span> </span>In chess, each side has two
castles; it is also called ‘Rooks’ (black crow like bird).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>The
Knight on the chess game represents professional soldier and their job is to
protect the higher rank during the medieval times and they are more important
piece in the game of chess than pawns and less important than bishops, king or
queen.<span> </span>They are little similar to that
of the pawns, who can be sacrificed to save the higher rank people in chess.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Bishop
represents Church.<span> </span>It was a mighty and
powerful force during 8<sup>th</sup> century and religion played a vital role
in everyone’s life.<span> </span>He is the priest in
the Catholic Church who had risen through the ranks to a very powerful
position.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Single
Woman, but the most powerful</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Queen
represents a woman and she is the most powerful piece of the chess game.<span> </span>During the medieval times queens held a very
powerful but a risky position.<span> </span>Even the
King was guided by her advice and in many cases queen played games of secret
plans at court.<span> </span>Many Kings imprisoned
their wives in nunneries with the approval of Church.<span> </span>Though they were imprisoned they held more
powerful position in the Kingdom than the King.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>King
is the tallest piece on the board and had the least power in the game of
chess.<span> </span>In ancient times the surrender of
the King means the loss of kingdom.<span> </span>The
same way if we do not protect our king we will lose the game.<span> </span>It was to everyone’s advantage from the
lowest to the highest rank officials to keep the king safe from any harm.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span></span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Thus, the pieces
on the chess board represented a way of life lived by the people during the
8-14<sup>th</sup> century.<span> </span>The life
dramas that occurred during those times are now only game.<span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">To
Know When to Say </span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">‘It’s
none Of Your Business’</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 4.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span>-<span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">McCormack</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Introduction:</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Mark
Hume McCormack was the founder and CEO of the sports management conglomerate
International Management Group, which represents such celebrities as Tiger
Woods, Andre Agassi and Venus and Serena Williams.<span> </span>His 1984 book <i>What They Don’t Teach You</i> at <i>Harvard
Business School</i> was a best-seller.<span>
</span>In the essay, the author discusses about the importance of being strict,
stiff and frank, especially in business.<span>
</span>As a general rule, we should be ready to say “It’s none of your
business” to any person if at all he/she tries to invade our privacy.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Incorrigible
Snoop</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>At
the beginning, the author talks about an incorrigible snoop who worked in his
company.<span> </span>This snoop had a thirst to know
what other people are doing.<span> </span>He wasn’t
sneaky.<span> </span>He was charmingly open when he
pried and he used some tactics too.<span> </span>No
one in the organization had the guts or courage to say “It’s none of your
business” to this snoop when he tried to peep into other’s personal matter. The
author says, many awkward (difficult to handle) moments in business occur
because people can’t say, “It’s none of your business”.<span> </span>Most people are curious in nature.<span> </span>Even the highly curious people know what’s
appropriate to ask and what’s not.<span> </span>The
snoop at the author’s office was actually innocent.<span> </span>However if he started questioning people on
confidential areas, they would have suspected him.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Two
areas where we should maintain our secrecy</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>McCormack
states that for two topics we should be ready to say “It’s none of your
business”. It is about someone else’s money and personal life.<span> </span>These are the two important areas where we
have to maintain secrecy.<span> </span>The author is
surprised to see how aggressively people pry into these areas and how much they
reveal on these subjects.<span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">First
important area: Money</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>If
we take the case of money, certain types of money discussions are taboo
(restricted).<span> </span>Times have changed.<span> </span>But still we know that another person’s
salary is none of our business.<span> </span>The
author describes the story of a foolish agent who got into trouble.<span> </span>The agent had a client who was a writer.<span> </span>He was fixed to write the text of an
illustrated book for a publisher.<span> </span>One
day the writer phoned the agent to know about the pay of the illustrator.<span> </span>The foolish agent called the publisher who
shouted back at her.<span> </span>The author feels
that this entire embarrassing event would have been avoided if the agent had
told the client, ‘You have accepted the fee.<span>
</span>What the illustrator gets is none of your business”.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Second
important area: Personal life</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>McCormack
suggests that our personal life is another area where we should maintain
secrecy.<span> </span>Yet a lot of people try to
snoop over one’s personal life.<span> </span>In a
working environment where people work for more than eight hours a day, it is
obvious to develop a friendly relationship with others.<span> </span>We may share few personal details with
them.<span> </span>Sometimes our close associates
whom we believe might pull our legs one day with our personal information’s.<span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He
gives an example of the CEO accompanied by two of his senior staff.<span> </span>As one of the staff was quite ignorant of the
discussed topic, the CEO snapped briskly and suddenly at him in front of the
author by saying “May be you would know more if you didn’t spend your evening
on the phone with your girlfriend in Chicago.<span>
</span>The author was shocked by this event.<span>
</span>The staff trusted him as a friend and revealed his personal details, but
the CEO abused that trust and he used that information to criticize him in
front of the author.<span> </span>This really
weakened the Boss-Subordinate relationship.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>It
is always good to maintain secrecy in certain areas to avoid such
circumstances.<span> </span>Through these incidents
the author emphases the need to say “It’s none of your business”</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Alexander Fleming</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span><span> </span>-
Philip cane</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Philip Cane, an electronics engineer from Untied States portrays the
biographical life events of Alexander Fleming, by his discovery of penicillin,
which has made a unique contribution to medical science.<span> </span>This essay is from ‘Giants of Science’
written by Philip Cane.<span> </span>The discoveries
of Alexander Fleming have helped in relieving or minimizing (reduce) physical
suffering of the people.<span> </span>Penicillin is
an antibiotic taken from a Latin word called ‘Penicill’ which means Brush.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Young age </span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>He was born on August 6, 1881 in Loch farm field, Southwestern
Scotland.<span> </span>He is the youngest in his
family of Hugh Fleming.<span> </span>His father died
when he was only seven years old.<span> </span>Later
his mother looked over the family.<span> </span>Until
he was ten, Alexander attended the nearby Loudoun Moor School, after that he
studied in Darvel School with his brothers.<span>
</span>He had to walk four miles to school and this four miles up and down
helped him to observe nature well.<span>
</span>Poverty made Alexander to stop from school.<span> </span>Later he worked in a shipping company, earned
money and continued his studies.<span> </span>He made
up his mind to study medicine.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Topper in academics</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>He joined as a student in St. Mary’s.<span>
</span>He was a very good student and stood first in every subject.<span> </span>He won many prizes, yet he was not a
bookworm.<span> </span>He participated in rifle team,
swimming, water-polo team, theatricals group and won many prizes too.<span> </span>After his completion of studies he became a
research student under Almroth Wright who was famous for his research on
Phagocytes (Cells in body to destroy bacteria).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Almroth Wright and Fleming</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Louis Pasteur discovered microbes (micro organism that causes disease),
this led to further discovery.<span> </span>Elie
Metchnikoff at Pasteur Institute discovered phagocytes in blood eaten up by
bacteria.<span> </span>Wright discovered phagocytes
are not capable to fight against bacteria and it was done by opsonin (substance
in blood to destroy bacteria) in blood.<span>
</span>This discovery led to doctors to inject into patient’s blood vaccine
which help to destroy bacteria.<span>
</span>Alexander had to both laboratory work and hospital work and he felt that
it was very difficult.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">His Discoveries</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Alexander had not approved to use chemical antiseptics because instead
to killing bacteria, antiseptics destroyed white corpuscles. One day he
suffered from cold he grew a culture (bacteria grown) of the secretion, a
yellow microbe was found.<span> </span>He treated
with nasal mucus (liquid from nose), he found the bacteria’s been killed by
them.<span> </span>He continued his research and
found Lysozymes (enzyme to destroy bacteria) rich in tears, sputum (saliva) and
also in cow’s milk, mother’s milk and in the white of egg.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Fleming discovered ‘Penicillin’ was a piece of luck.<span> </span>He found bacteria being contaminated (poisonous
food) by a mould (fungus on food).<span> </span>HE
found that mould can destroy which was in the shape of a brush and he later
named it Penicillin.<span> </span>He began his
research on other food stuffs and found mould has the capacity to destroy
bacteria.<span> </span>It showed that the mould
produced a material to destroy the bacteria.<span>
</span>Alexander continued his tests in liquid medium and found mould very
powerful in it too.<span> </span>He found it was not
poisonous too.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Oxford University</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Professor Florey and Dr. Chain at Oxford read Flemings report on
Penicillin and decided to examine on it.<span>
</span>They experimented on patients and found tremendous power.<span> </span>In 1941 Britain was at war, Florey and Dr.
Chain asked American manufacturers to produce penicillin drugs and it saved
many lives of soldiers.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Alexander was awarded the honorable Noble Prize and also knighted
(awarded) by the King of England in 1944.<span>
</span>Until his death in 1955 he was engaged in research in the field of
bacteriology.<span> </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span><b>Mother Teresa</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>-<span> </span>John Frazer</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>John Frazer is an English architect, and influential teacher and writer
on architect.<span> </span>In this essay Frazer talks
about a great women Mother Teresa who devoted her life to do to service for the
poor people, who has been described as ‘the lady of the slums, the champion of
the poor, the apostle (messenger) of the unwanted, the angel of mercy, the
gently mother’.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Birth of Mother Teresa</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>She was born in Yugoslavia of Albanian parents (26 August 1910 – 5
September 1997), and she received training as a nun (sister in church) in
Dublin, Ireland and came to Kolkata in 1929 as a teacher. She collected orphan
children and taught them hygiene (Cleanliness).<span>
</span>In 1946, she decided to devote her life to the service of poor and those
who suffered from diseases.<span> </span>She started
missionaries of charity.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Lady of the slums</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Mother Teresa came to Kolkata slums and she walked into the dirty slums
wearing a white sari.<span> </span>She had only five
rupees with and yet she felt she could help the sick and the poor.<span> </span>She knocked on the dirty house doors where
the children were ragged (who wears torn clothes), and barefooted (no
slippers).<span> </span>She gave education to them
under trees.<span> </span>She is a best know woman in
India.<span> </span>Though poor, Mother Teresa in
like Himalaya in wealth.<span> </span>Her asset
(property) includes 7500 children in 60 schools 9, 60,000 patients in 214 dispensaries
(clinics) 47, 00 leprosy people in 54 clinics 1,600 orphaned or abandoned
children in 20 homes and 3, 400 dying people in 23 homes.<span> </span>This is her real asset.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>About her</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>She established the Catholic order (organization) in 1950.<span> </span>The Jawaharlal Nehru Award was given to her
service to humanity without distinction of caste, creed (religious belief) and
nationality.<span> </span>She is nearly 150 cm
tall.<span> </span>She is calm and straight forward,
who is always capable of good laughter with visitors.<span> </span>She is hard to deal with when it comes to
helping the needy.<span> </span>She has a good
listening capacity but there was some objection to the Pope inviting her to
open slums in Rome.<span> </span>She only travels by
third class ticket and do menial service too.<span>
</span>She is very humorous (Funny), integrity (good), and fortitude (bold in
taking pain)\</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">She is Simple</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Mother Teresa’s help to the poor is a sign of simplicity.<span> </span>She will not worry about others those who
discourage her.<span> </span>She helps others and
gives room to the poor’s and diseased people though there is no place for her
in her room.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>Her first big venture (risk) was a home for the very poor sick and dying
people.<span> </span>She stared it when she saw an
old woman being bitten by rats dying in the streets.<span> </span>She went and complained to the Municipal
authorities to provide place for the poor.<span>
</span>Later she was offered a vacant pilgrim hostel by side of Hindu temple,
and the placed named Nirmal Hriday.<span> </span>The
sick and the dying are treated in Nirmal Hriday. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Peace Prize</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>The missionaries of charity run ten schools in Kolkata with strength of
around 2500 students.<span> </span>Milk and bread are
provided to the children.<span> </span>This First
International Pope John XXIII Peace Prize went to Mother Teresa in January
1971.<span> </span>She used the prize money of Rs.
one lakh to start a leper colony in West Bengal.<span> </span>This was followed by the Templeton Foundation
Prize for progress in Religion.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>The prize money of Rs. 6,46 lakhs was presented to Mother Teresa by
Prince Philip.<span> </span>Many branches of
Missionaries of Charity were established in different parts of world.<span> </span>At the age of 87 she passed away on 5
September 1997.<span> </span>She is known as the
angel of mercy and gentle mother.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Leo Tolstoy</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span>
</span>-<span> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Ronald Seth</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Leo Tolstoy, the Great
Russian writer and novelist, whose short stories deals with ordinary, humble
people who are charged with a deep moral and spiritual importance.<span> </span>Ronald Seth in this essay deals with the
biographical sketches of Leo Tolstoy and also gives a picture of his writings
and works, who mainly deals with clash of characters and moral conflict (fight)
in his novels.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Life of Leo Tolstoy </span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He enjoyed a very rich
life in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1850’s.<span>
</span>The place looked so beautiful, and he also had very rich estates in the
Province of Tula.<span> </span>He was born on August
28, 1928 in a place called Yashnaya Polyana.<span>
</span>He lost his mother before he was six years and before nine years of age
his father also died.<span> </span>He had a number of
brothers and since he was rich he had education at home.<span> </span>He hated university studies.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Land of Slaves</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>In Russia, during Leo
Tolstoy’s days, the land was cultivated by the serfs (slaves).<span> </span>Around forty five million slaves were set
free by Alexander I, in 1861 and Leo Tolstoy took their sufferings and
difficulties.<span> </span>He tried his to help the
slaves and support them but he had only little success when he tried to improve
their life style and conditions.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">His Works</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He later joined army
in the year 1851.<span> </span>It was that he started
to maintain a diary and which he maintained throughout his life.<span> </span>Later he started writing stories and
books.<span> </span>His first story was ‘Childhood’
published in 1852.<span> </span>It gained lot of
admiration (attention) from the public and the book become very famous amongst
the readers.<span> </span>Later followed by a book
called ‘The Raid’ where he talked about the life led by the soldiers in the
army and the battle field.<span> </span>Turgenev, a
Great Russian writer praised Leo Tolstoy that he will glorify (famous) all in
writing.<span> </span>Tolstoy followed writing a
novel titled ‘The Cassacks’.<span> </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Life time decision </span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>At the age of 22 he
was to take a very important decision, his family expected him to take care of
estates.<span> </span>He was in a confused situation
whether to take up the estates or to continue with army, later he took a bold
decision and in the year 1857, he felt unhappy in the army and he retired from
it.<span> </span>He went back to his estates and
helped the workers there.<span> </span>He had a very
big beard, when his neighbors and relatives asked he replied that he wanted to
look very simple like a Russian peasant (farmer).</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Love towards the Poor</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>Once he went to
Switzerland and an incident took place which revealed (show) his love towards
the poor.<span> </span>There was entertainment in one
of the clubs and one day the door of the club was opened, it was too cold.<span> </span>An old man with rags (torn clothes) wanted to
close the door who was sitting outside.<span>
</span>When he went near the door, one of them from the inside threw his musical
instruments and he stood useless.<span> </span>He was
not able to do anything against the rich people.<span> </span>Leo Tolstoy was not able to tolerate after
seeing the incident, he rushed near the old man and helped him to pass the
hall.<span> </span>Others made fun of him but he
didn’t take it serious and helped the old man.<span>
</span>From that moment he took a liking for the poor. He was very kind to all
the workers at the farm.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">His last days</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He began writing and
looking after his estates, later he wrote a novel titled ‘War and Peace’
(1864-69).<span> </span>He wrote another book named
‘Anna Karenina’ (1877), followed up by a book called ‘The Confessions’ (1884),
in this he revealed his personal life.<span>
</span>He then married and led a happy life. He had 30 estates; though he was
rich he was not happy, later he gave away all his money for the welfare of poor
people. He loved his brothers and sisters and he even did some menial (small
service) works for them.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Christianity and Leo
Tolstoy</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He preached a new
religion based on Christianity.<span> </span>“The
foundation of a new religion corresponding to the development of mankind: the
religion Jesus Christ”.<span> </span>It was doing
good to others, no creed (system of belief), no anger, no violence and no
living on the work of others.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span>He set out for
Caucasus when he was 82 years of age.<span>
</span>But unfortunately on the way he suffered from pneumonia (pain in both
the lungs) and he died.<span> </span>Though he passed
away all his works are still living with us.<span>
</span>His books live on, but his ideas are still ideals (perfect).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: black;">THE SECOND CRUCIFIXION -
Larry Collins</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;">INTRODUCTION:<br />
Larry Collins is the author of fall from grace and co-author, with Dominique
Lapierre of the best selling. Dominique Lapierre is the author of the
best-selling city of joy and co-author of “O Jerusalem “<br />
<br />
ALL INDIA RADIO ANNOUNCING THE ASSASINATION OF GANDHI:<br />
The director of A.I.R anticipated that terrible violence would erupt if
Gandhi’s assassin turned out to be a Moslem. So he took the responsible
decision of ordering the programmes to continue as normal. He announced the
death of Gandhi by a Hindu assassin only at six o’clock, nearly 40 minutes
after the event, when sufficient security arrangements had been made in all
places.<br />
<br />
MOUNTBATTEN FELT THAT GANDHIJI WITH BUDDHA AND CHIRST:<br />
On hearing the news of Gandhiji’s death, Louis Mountbatten rushed to Birla
house where his body was kept. Mountbatten could not recognize Gandhi, with his
spectacles removed. Gandhi’s look was full of repose and his features were as
peaceful and composed as in life. He thought that Mahatma Gandhiji will be
remembered in history on par with Buddha and Christ because he had sacrificed
his life like them for the sake of mankind.<br />
<br />
MOUNTBATTEN WITH NEHRU AND PATEL:<br />
Mountbatten went up to Nehru and Patel and told them about Gandhiji’s dying
wish. Gandhiji had been greatly worried that two of his supporter’s Patel and
Nehru were drifting apart. Mountbatten informed Patel and Nehru that Gandhiji
had asked him to prevail upon them to forget their differences and work
together. Moved by this message, the two leaders embraced each other.<br />
<br />
NATION RESPONDS TO GANDHIJI’S DEATH:<br />
On hearing the news of Gandhiji’s death, the whole nation was filled with
sorrow and silence. To mourn the Mahatma, the hearths in villages were cold.
The streets of the cities of Bombay and Calcutta wore a deserted look. In
Pakistan millions of women shattered their baubles and trinkets to show their
grief. In some places mobs tried to attack the buildings of Hindu mahasabha and
R.S.S villagers started marching towards Delhi to mourn the leader.<br />
MOUNTBATTEN WANTS TO CARRY HIS BODY:<br />
Mountbatten planned to carry Gandhiji’s embalmed body in a special funeral
train throughout the country. So that millions of people could have a last
darshan of their leader. But pyarelal Nayar ended the idea by pointing out that
Gandhiji had clearly wanted his body to be cremated within twenty four hours of
his death in accordance with Hindu tradition.<br />
<br />
</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><br />
NEHRU AND PATEL RELUCTANT USE OF GANDHIJI’S CREMATION:<br />
Mountbatten suggested engaging the military for organizing and conducting the
funeral procession, as there would be a very huge crowd. Nehru and patel were
shocked at thus suggestion as Gandhiji was always against war and violence
which was the profession of the military. Mountbatten convinced them by saying
that Gandhiji admired the military’s discipline and they finally selented .<br />
<br />
GANDHIJI’S DEATH:<br />
Filled with tears Nehru announced the death of Gandhiji on the radio. He said
that “THE LIGHT HAD GONE OUT OF OUR LIVES” as the Bapu (Gandhiji) is dead. But
he corrected himself and said that the light will be always seen as it
represented the eternal truths of life guiding us in the right path.<br />
<br />
HINDUSTAN HERALD PAYS ITS TRIBUTE TO GANDHIJI:<br />
The most memorable tribute to Gandhiji was paid by the Hindustan herald .Its
editorial page was left bank ringed by a black border. At its centre in bold
letters there was a single paragraph which described the killing of Gandhiji
as” A SECOND CRUCIFIXON” in the history pf the world enacted on the same
day-Friday-on which Jesus was killed.</span></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span>The listeners – Walter De La Mare</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>The poem starts as a horseman comes to visit a person he
has once promised (someone) he would. But the mansion is deserted, occupied
only by a bird and phantoms. His repeated enquiries, unexpectedly, are not
answered. So he is feeling confused, lonely and awkward. His questions are
heard only by a group of ghosts living there, who, disturbed by the traveler's
knockings, huddle up along the staircase apprehensively, for the world of the
living is as intriguing for them as is theirs for those alive. Unanswered, he
leaves the place in it's quietness and goes back.</b><br />
The poet creates a strange, eerie atmosphere by the use of likely words,
phrases and situation. The turret suggests a medieval mansion; the bird shows
that the house is deserted; the starry night adds up to the atmosphere's
eeriness; the unchecked trees and fern about the house confirm its solitude.
The poem highlights the two worlds the living i.e. the traveler and the dead
i.e. the listeners. The poem basically tells us that the living and the dead
are in a separate world and there is know way the dead can come back.
Indirectly the poem tells us that a change is a must nothing will be with you
for ever and thus time is valuable. The poem also teaches us to keep any
promise which we make.</span></div>
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<h2 style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hawk Roosting, by Ted Hughes</span></h2>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The hawk, a bird of prey, is seen in Ted <a href="http://www.anthology.aqa.org.uk/index.asp?currmenu=hughes" target="_blank">Hughes</a>'
poem “Hawk Roosting” resting on a branch of a tree. The poem is written in the
first person as though the hawk is speaking, so it is a dramatic monologue. The
hawk seems to see himself as the centre of the universe and creates an impression
of arrogance, as though the world were made for him and his purposes. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">In the first stanza Hughes introduces the hawk “in the top of the wood.”
This high position is an indication of superiority. The bird is very still and
its eyes are closed. Hughes uses alliteration of the “k” sound several times in
the poem, creating a harsh feeling. The sound exists in the word “hawk” itself,
of course, and there are further instances of it in line 3 where “hooked” is
repeated. In the fourth line “kills” continues the alliteration. This line
describes the hawk imagining killing and eating its prey even while it is
asleep. A picture of ruthlessness begins to build up. Interestingly, lines 3
and 4 are the only lines in the poem that rhyme. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The second stanza opens with the exclamation “The convenience of the high
trees!” The hawk again refers to its high altitude, and the word “convenience”
conveys the idea that its position is an ideal one. The bird can look down on
the world below, and the impression is that the wood has been created to suit
its needs. Hughes links lines 6 and 7 with enjambment to extend the idea that
the hawk can fly with ease and make use of the light from the sun. They are “of
advantage to me,” once again emphasising the fact that the hawk considers
nature to have been created for its own purposes.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The second stanza closes with the hawk's comment that, from the top of the
tree, it can see “the earth's face” looking up and easily observe the details.
Everything is just right for this bird of prey. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">In the opening line of the third stanza, Hughes again uses alliteration with
the hard “k” sound in “locked” and “bark.” The hawk has a tight hold upon the
branch, whose surface is “rough.” Hughes uses enjambment once more to link
lines 10 and 11, describing how features of the hawk's body were created. The
word “Creation” is capitalised, thus making it synonymous with God. The fact
that the hawk considers that it took “the whole of Creation” to make its feet
and feathers gives the bird an arrogant air. In the final line of this stanza,
the hawk sees that positions are now reversed; it holds Creation in one small
foot, therefore having become all powerful. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The end of the third stanza and the beginning of the fourth are linked by
enjambment, as the hawk shows that it is free to “fly up” and circle the world
below at its leisure. Line 14 is an extremely telling one: “I kill where I
please because it is all mine.” The hawk considers that it has supreme power
and owns the whole earth that it can see below. Its ruthlessness is apparent
again in lines 15 and 16, as the hawk says it possesses no “sophistry” or
subtle reasoning; it kills by “tearing off heads.” There is no attempt to
soften the blow of its hunting methods. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The fifth stanza continues the image of the hawk hunting with the brief
phrase “The allotment of death.” The hawk chooses what it kills, and it is
brutal. Enjambment again links lines 18 and 19, describing how the hawk's
passage takes it “Through the bones of the living.” The stanza closes with the
statement “No arguments assert my right,” giving the impression that the hawk's
methods of killing are unquestionable. It does not need to justify its
actions. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The four lines of the sixth and final stanza are all end stopped, and read
as concise, matter-of-fact sentences. They emphasise the idea that what the
hawk says goes and cannot be contested. The hawk states “Nothing has changed,”
but this is no accident. The bird considers, in the penultimate line of the
poem, that it has not allowed anything to change. The poem closes with the line
“I am going to keep things like that,” asserting the hawk's power over the
whole of nature.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hughes appears to be using the hawk in this poem as a symbol for power. A
hawk would of course act instinctively and kill for the purposes of survival.
The implications of “Hawk Roosting” are therefore that the poem is an extended
metaphor for the behaviour of a tyrant or power-seeking ruler. Such a person
would, as the hawk is in this poem, be self-centred and arrogant. An
authoritarian despot would not allow himself or his methods to be questioned,
and would see the world around him as being designed to suit his purposes. Ted
Hughes, in “Hawk Roosting,” paints a picture of a creature that is ruthless and
self-involved, showing how a lust for power can take over a being and end in
brutality. </span></div>
<h1 style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i><span>The Mending Wall</span></i><span> by Robert Frost</span></span></h1>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span>The poem literally says that a stone
wall separates the speaker's property from his neighbor's. Every year the wall
is damaged from harsh weather and hunters. In the spring, the two neighbors
walk the wall and jointly make repairs. Also, the speaker sees no reason for
keeping the wall because there are no cows to be contained or anything, only
apple and pine trees.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span>The theme is that you won't get to
know a person unless you put down your wall or barrier.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>The speaker can be characterized as
philosophical, amiable, and unconvinced. The philosophical aspect comes from
figurative language and diction such as when the speaker says that "spring
is the mischief in [him]" (line 28). The speaker is also amiable for he
friendly converses with his neighbor about the necessity of the wall. The speaker
remains unconvinced about why the neighbor wants to keep the wall. Lastly, the
speaker's tone is one that is yearnful and inquiring for change and an end to
the wall.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>One auditory observation in the poem
is its harmonious and dramatic quality that is created through the device of
euphony. Also, a cold and harsh sounding quality is produced through the
repetition of stones and boulders. Additionally, there's a cacophonous auditory
quality that's produced by the improper grammar visible in line one that says
"something there is that doesn't love a wall". It grabs the reader's
attention.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>The structure of this poem is that
it is blank verse with no stanza breaks, obvious end rhymes, or rhyming
patterns. The writer's intention with this form is that it sustains the natural
speech and conversational quality of the poem. Also, the poem's physical
structure and appearance on the paper resembles a solid stone wall which would
explain the reason for no breaks.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>One of the main literary devices
visible in this poem is metaphors and figurative language. Its presence is all
throughout the poem from beginning to end. This device functions to display
ambiguity and inspire all kinds of interpretations of the text. It also
functions as a means of portraying humor, which is discernible when the speaker
tells the neighbor "[his] apple trees will never get across and eat the
cones under his pines" (lines 25-26).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>Another poetic device that's
observable all throughout the poem is visual imagery. It produces a beneficial
effect by aiding the speaker in elaborating the details of mending the wall.
This can be discerned in line two and three because every winter, "the
frozen ground-swell spills the upper boulders in the sun" (lines 2-3).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>Another perceivable device is
diction. There are at least ten lines throughout this poem that noticeably
portray the speaker's intentional word choice. Diction functions to develop
ambiguity such that is seen in line one. In addition, it provides emphasis in
order to draw and focus the reader's attention on a certain concept or idea.
This can be distinguished when the speaker states "there where it is we do
not need the wall", because it is a main concept discussed (line 23).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>Furthermore, symbolism of the wall
is another device that is visible mostly in the heart of the poem. This stone
wall symbolizes a divide between properties that puts up confinements and
boundaries. This symbol develops a theme of barrier-building and segregation.
The symbol of this wall also functions to develop the character of the neighbor
as having an ancient and old fashioned way of thinking, which is noticeable
through words such as "spells" and "elves" and an
"old-stone savage".</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span>Finally, irony is a device that's
distinguishable in this poem. It is portrayed in several humorous remarks by
the speaker, throughout the poem. The irony of the wall is that the speaker and
his neighbor rebuild the wall every spring, only to have it broken again next
year. Mending the wall is a pointless act because it will inevitably be damaged
once again.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>THE STONE – W.W.
GIBSON </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The poem talks about a young woman whose lover died in a
stone quarry. She was stunned by the shocking news of her lover’s death. She is
a picture of deep sorrow. The poem has an abrupt opening. It starts when the
conversation is going on between two people. The woman goes to the poet and
asks him for cutting a stone in the opening line.<br />
Three days before a huge rock had struck her lover in a stone quarry. In spite
of giving warning and shot fired, he was loitering and full of spirit. Suddenly
a rock fell and he was found under the rock. When he saw the rock his eyes saw
his end. The poet saw this and he wanted to break this news to his lover. He
was afraid and very careful in his words. But before he could utter a word he
saw she was standing like a stone because some poor fellow had already told the
news. The fellow wide opened the door and told the news of her lover’s death
without knowing the consequence and left the woman lifeless.<br />
The poet can guess what would have happened by looking at the woman’s face. The
woman stood like a stone, her heart was dead. She didn’t cry nor moan. The
boy’s mother was weeping but she didn’t for three days and three nights. She
did not stir.<br />
She never closed her eyes, from sunset to sunrise. She didn’t cry but her eyes
saw everything. The fourth day, when the poet came from work he saw the woman
waiting for him at his door and said “And will you cut a stone for him?” and
spoke nothing but followed the poet. When the poet sat in the chair she was
just staring at his face. She was waiting patiently. The poet saw her gray eyes
which were staring at him and he felt as if the eyes are plucking his heart and
sucking the breath from him.<br />
The poet could not wait any more so he stood and started to cut the stone in a
square. As the poet was working she sat beside him watching everything day
& night. When he was cutting the name of her lover she was watching each
stroke but didn’t utter a single word. The stroke broke her silence.<br />
Her eyes didn’t move from my hands. She was watching me with bloodless lips.
Every cut of the chisel gave a deeper cut to her heart. It looked as if death
was killing her inside. When the poet has finished his work she breathed his
name and with a sigh passed through the open door and never came again. The
next night the poet was working late because he was cutting her name on the
stone.<br />
Thus the woman represents the picture of silent and sorrow, it also shows how
she was in love with her lover that she could not bare the sorrow of his death and
so died after cutting his stone.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>LEAVE THIS CHANTING
– RABINDRANATH TAGORE</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span>In this poem “Leave This Chanting
And Singing” Tagore deplores all selfish and barren ritualism (mere performance
of rituals without any thought of general being). Tagore bids the holy man of
prayer to abandon the outdated method of chanting, singing and murmuring loud
prayers by holding tight the chain of beads one by one. He stresses on the holy
man to contemplate on the fact of finding God inside a lonely dark room with
all the doors shut. He must try to open his eyes inside the dark room to see
whether God is really there in front of him. Will he even come near to the
presence of God and expect a positive interaction with the Great Unknown? God
is not in the dark chamber where the so called devotee is meditating and
chanting hymns turning his back upon the world of toiling humanity. <br />
God is everywhere but His face can be mysteriously seen by the eyes of one’s
heart in perhaps some of the most unusual places of the world. According to
Tagore, God stands with the tiller who is tilling the hard ground and the
path-maker who is breaking stones in the open air. He is with both of them in
the heat of the sun and the shower of the summer rain, yet strengthening them
unknowingly. Tagore even imagines that in the process even God’s garment is
covered with dust. So he advises the holy man to at least try to imitate God by
removing the ‘holy mantle’- the mendicant’s loose robe- and set foot upon the
dusty soil. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span>
After all man’s ultimate spiritual goal is to seek God’s deliverance. This is
the liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and death. God has bound
himself in the process of creation and accepted its joys and sorrows. To be
Godly is not to be restricted to self meditation and needless ritualistic
flowers and incense, but let his clothes be tattered and stained for God’s
sake. He should learn it the hard way to seek and find the face of God amidst
the face of the world. God does not listen to his prayers, for he is with the
poor and the down trodden. True religion consists in love of man and in lending
a helping hand to the less fortunate men and women who struggle hard to make a
bare living. Like Vivekananda and many other seers, Tagore believes that
service of man is the service of God. That man is to be pitied who is seeking
to find his personal salvation by running away from the world. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;"><br />
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-72083674091027996892013-02-26T02:05:00.003-08:002013-02-26T02:14:56.161-08:00Computing Skills (Chapters 1-7)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Experiment:
1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Date:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Title:
Manipulating a text<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aim:
To manipulate a given text<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">THE
TOWN BY THE SEA<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> On <i>December 25, 2004</i>, the director was in <b>Port Blair</b>, on his way to <b>New Delhi</b>. Since he was travelling for official reasons,
he had left his family in <b>Malacca</b>. He spent the night of December 25 in the
Haddo circuit house, which stands close to the water. On the 26<sup>th</sup> morning he was woken
by the shaking of his bed. He stepped
off to find the floor heaving. As he was
running out of the building, his mobile phone rang. Glancing at the screen, he saw that his wife
was calling from <b>Malacca, Car Nicobar</b>. He cut off the call and ran outside; he would
phone back later, he decided once the tremors stopped.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Along
with everyone else he ran to higher ground.
It was not long, however before it occurred to the Director that the
Nicobar Islands do not have the high elevations. They are low-lying islands for the most
part. The director became anxious and
dialed home. He dialed the number again
and again: it was either busy or there was no answer. In the afternoon, he learnt that his
13-year-old son had been found clinging to the roof of the church some 200
meters behind the house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Experiment:
2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Date:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Title:
Aligning text<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aim:
To align text<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Left
Alignment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blind Snake is a very
small, harmless, burrowing, worm-like snake, pink or brown in color, the eyes
sunk below smooth, shiny scales.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Right
Alignment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blind Snake is a
very small, harmless, burrowing, worm-like snake, pink or brown in color, the
eyes sunk below smooth, shiny scales.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Center
Alignment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blind
Snake is a very small, harmless, burrowing, worm-like snake, pink or brown in
color, the eyes sunk below smooth, shiny scales.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Right
Justification<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blind Snake is a very
small, harmless, burrowing, worm-like snake, pink or brown in color, the eyes
sunk below smooth, shiny scales.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Experiment:
3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Date:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Title:
Formatting a text<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aim:
To move a block of text<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Before<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sand Boa lives on sand over most of Arabia. <b>It is
mostly nocturnal</b>. It hunts for
lizards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sand Boa lives on sand over most of Arabia. It hunts for lizards. <b>It is mostly nocturnal</b>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Line
spacing: After<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">The 62<sup>nd</sup>
Republic day was celebrated on 26<sup>th</sup> January 2010 in the college
premises. Students wrote an essay on the
importance of the role of youth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Experiment:
4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Date:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Title:
Creating Tables, bullets<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aim:
To create tables in word, border, bullets and numbers<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Table<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 250%;">List
of Indian States and their capitals<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 17.6pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.85pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">S.NO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 174.55pt;" valign="top" width="233"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">STATES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 157.5pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">CAPITAL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 17.6pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.85pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 174.55pt;" valign="top" width="233"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Andhra Pradesh<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 157.5pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Hyderabad<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 18.5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 18.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.85pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 174.55pt;" valign="top" width="233"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Arunachal Pradesh<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 157.5pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Itanagar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 17.6pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.85pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 174.55pt;" valign="top" width="233"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Assam<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 17.6pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-height-rule: exactly; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 157.5pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Dispur<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 250%;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 250%;">Bullets:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.C.A<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.Sc
Computer Science<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.Com
(Gen)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.Com
(Corp.Sec)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.B.A</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.sc
(Vis.com)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">B.A
(Eng)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">M.S.W</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 384px;">
<colgroup><col span="6" style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="3" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; width: 144pt;" width="192">EXPERIMENT NO: 5</td>
<td class="xl69" style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></td>
<td class="xl77" colspan="2" style="width: 96pt;" width="128">CELL EDITING</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl70" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">DATE</td>
<td class="xl70"></td>
<td class="xl70"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl65" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl65" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl70" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">AIM:</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">EDITING TEXT</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none;"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl73" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">BEFORE</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl73">AFTER</td>
<td class="xl68"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Maths</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Maths I</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Physics</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Physics I</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Language</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; mso-ignore: colspan;">Language
I</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="3" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">CUTTING
CELLS</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl73" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">BEFORE</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl73">AFTER</td>
<td class="xl68"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Maths</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Language</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Physics</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Oracle</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Language</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Oracle</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="3" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">COPYING
CELLS</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl73" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">BEFORE</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl73">AFTER</td>
<td class="xl68"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Maths</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Maths </td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Physics</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Physics </td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Language</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Language</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Oracle</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">INSERT
CELLS</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl73" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">BEFORE</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl73">AFTER</td>
<td class="xl68"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">January</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">January</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">February</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">February</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">March</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">March</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">May</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl75" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">May</td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">DELETE
CELLS</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl73" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">BEFORE</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl73">AFTER</td>
<td class="xl68"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Father</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Father</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Mother</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Mother</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Children</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" style="border-right: .5pt solid black;">Children</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl66" colspan="2" height="21" style="border-right: .5pt solid black; height: 15.75pt;">Aunt<br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 456px;">
<colgroup><col style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></col>
<col style="mso-width-alt: 3254; mso-width-source: userset; width: 67pt;" width="89"></col>
<col span="3" style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></col>
<col style="mso-width-alt: 4059; mso-width-source: userset; width: 83pt;" width="111"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl73" colspan="3" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; width: 163pt;" width="217">EXPERIMENT NO: 6</td>
<td class="xl69" style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></td>
<td class="xl70" colspan="2" style="mso-ignore: colspan; width: 131pt;" width="175">USING
FORMULAE</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl70" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">DATE</td>
<td class="xl70"></td>
<td class="xl70"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="3" height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">FINDING THE
SUM </td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">S. NO</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none;">STUDENT</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 1</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 2</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 3</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">TOTAL</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">1</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">KAMAL</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">20</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">2</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CHENNU</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">17</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">3</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">SURESH</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">2</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">9</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">15</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">4</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">GEETHA</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">22</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">5</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">RAMA</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">7</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">17</td>
</tr>
<tr height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;">
<td class="xl66" height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;">
<td class="xl66" height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">
<td class="xl74" colspan="3" height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">FINDING THE AVERAGE</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">S. NO</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none;">STUDENT</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 1</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 2</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 3</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">AVERAGE</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">1</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">KAMAL</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6.666666667</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">2</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CHENNU</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5.666666667</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">3</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">SURESH</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">2</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">9</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">4</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">GEETHA</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">7.333333333</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">5</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">RAMA</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">7</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5.666666667</td>
</tr>
<tr height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;">
<td class="xl66" height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;">
<td class="xl66" height="22" style="height: 16.5pt;"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">
<td class="xl67" colspan="3" height="23" style="height: 17.25pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">ARRANGE
IN DESCENDING ORDER</td>
<td class="xl68"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">S. NO</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">STUDENT</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CIA 1</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 2</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">CIA 3</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none;">MAXIMUM</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">1</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">KAMAL</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">2</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CHENNU</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">3</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">SURESH</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">2</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">9</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">9</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">4</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">GEETHA</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl71" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">5</td>
<td class="xl72" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">RAMA</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">7</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl71" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">7</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 456px;">
<colgroup><col style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></col>
<col style="mso-width-alt: 3254; mso-width-source: userset; width: 67pt;" width="89"></col>
<col span="3" style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></col>
<col style="mso-width-alt: 4059; mso-width-source: userset; width: 83pt;" width="111"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl72" colspan="3" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; width: 163pt;" width="217">EXPERIMENT NO: 7</td>
<td style="width: 48pt;" width="64"></td>
<td class="xl65" colspan="2" style="mso-ignore: colspan; width: 131pt;" width="175">TEXT
MANIPULATING</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl65" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">DATE</td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td class="xl65"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;">
<td height="20" style="height: 15.0pt;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">
<td class="xl71" colspan="3" height="23" style="height: 17.25pt;">FINDING THE
SUM </td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
<td class="xl66"></td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl67" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">S. NO</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none;">STUDENT</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none;">CIA 1</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none;">CIA 2</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none;">CIA 3</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none;">TOTAL</td>
</tr>
<tr height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">
<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">1</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">KAMAL</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">20</td>
</tr>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">2</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CHENNU</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">5</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">17</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">3</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">SURESH</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">2</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">9</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">15</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">4</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">GEETHA</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">8</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">22</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">5</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">RAMA</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">6</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">7</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">17</td>
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<td class="xl73" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">SORTING DATA</td>
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<td class="xl70" colspan="2" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt; mso-ignore: colspan;">BEFORE</td>
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<td class="xl70">AFTER</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="height: 15.75pt;">S. NO</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none;">STUDENT</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl67">S. NO</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none;">STUDENT</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">1</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">KAMAL</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-top: none;">1</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CHENNU</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">2</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">CHENNU</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-top: none;">2</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">GEETHA</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">3</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">SURESH</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-top: none;">3</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">KAMAL</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">4</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">GEETHA</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-top: none;">4</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">RAMA</td>
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<td class="xl67" height="21" style="border-top: none; height: 15.75pt;">5</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">RAMA</td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl69"></td>
<td class="xl67" style="border-top: none;">5</td>
<td class="xl68" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">SURESH</td>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-6402325536077038382013-02-02T17:38:00.001-08:002013-02-02T17:38:35.942-08:00Julius Caesar (Act 3, scene 2)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Act III, scenes ii</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">He was my friend, faithful and just to me.<br />But Brutus says he was ambitious,<br />And Brutus is an honourable man.</span><div align="right" class="attribution" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;">
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Summary: Act III, scene ii</span></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Brutus and Cassius enter the Forum with a crowd of plebeians. Cassius exits to speak to another portion of the crowd. Brutus addresses the onstage crowd, assuring them that they may trust in his honor. He did not kill Caesar out of a lack of love for him, he says, but because his love for Rome outweighed his love of a single man. He insists that Caesar was great but ambitious: it was for this reason that he slew him. He feared that the Romans would live as slaves under Caesar’s leadership.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">He asks if any disagree with him, and none do. He thus concludes that he has offended no one and asserts that now Caesar’s death has been accounted for, with both his virtues and faults in life given due attention. Antony then enters with Caesar’s body. Brutus explains to the crowd that Antony had no part in the conspiracy but that he will now be part of the new commonwealth. The plebeians cheer Brutus’s apparent kindness, declaring that Brutus should be Caesar. He quiets them and asks them to listen to Antony, who has obtained permission to give a funeral oration. Brutus exits.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Antony ascends to the pulpit while the plebeians discuss what they have heard. They now believe that Caesar was a tyrant and that Brutus did right to kill him. But they wait to hear Antony. He asks the audience to listen, for he has come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. He acknowledges Brutus’s charge that Caesar was ambitious and maintains that Brutus is “an honourable man,” but he says that Caesar was his friend (III.ii.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">84</span>). He adds that Caesar brought to Rome many captives, whose countrymen had to pay their ransoms, thus filling Rome’s coffers. He asks rhetorically if such accumulation of money for the people constituted ambition. Antony continues that Caesar sympathized with the poor: “When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept” (III.ii.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">88</span>). He reminds the plebeians of the day when he offered the crown to Caesar three times, and Caesar three times refused. Again, he ponders aloud whether this humility constituted ambition. He claims that he is not trying to disprove Brutus’s words but rather to tell them what he, Antony, knows; he insists that as they all loved Caesar once, they should mourn for him now.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Antony pauses to weep. The plebeians are touched; they remember when Caesar refused the crown and wonder if more ambitious people have not stepped into his place. Antony speaks again, saying that he would gladly stir them to mutiny and rebellion, though he will not harm Brutus or Cassius, for they are—again—honorable men. He then brings out Caesar’s will. The plebeians beg him to read it. Antony says that he should not, for then they would be touched by Caesar’s love for them. They implore him to read it. He replies that he has been speaking too long—he wrongs the honorable men who have let him address the crowd. The plebeians call the conspirators traitors and demand that Antony read the will.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Finally, Antony descends from the pulpit and prepares to read the letter to the people as they stand in a circle around Caesar’s corpse. Looking at the body, Antony points out the wounds that Brutus and Cassius inflicted, reminding the crowd how Caesar loved Brutus, and yet Brutus stabbed him viciously. He tells how Caesar died and blood ran down the steps of the Senate. Then he uncovers the body for all to see. The plebeians weep and become enraged. Antony says that they should not be stirred to mutiny against such “honourable men” (III.ii.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">148</span>). He protests that he does not intend to steal away their hearts, for he is no orator like Brutus. He proclaims himself a plain man; he speaks only what he knows, he says—he will let Caesar’s wounds speak the rest. If he were Brutus, he claims, he could urge them to rebel, but he is merely Antony.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The people declare that they will mutiny nonetheless. Antony calls to them to let him finish: he has not yet read the will. He now reads that Caesar has bequeathed a sum of money from his personal holdings to every man in Rome. The citizens are struck by this act of generosity and swear to avenge this selfless man’s death. Antony continues reading, revealing Caesar’s plans to make his private parks and gardens available for the people’s pleasure. The plebeians can take no more; they charge off to wreak havoc throughout the city. Antony, alone, wonders what will come of the mischief he has set loose on Rome. Octavius’s servant enters. He reports that Octavius has arrived at Caesar’s house, and also that Brutus and Cassius have been driven from Rome.</span></div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-33943370523868806492013-02-02T17:33:00.001-08:002013-02-02T17:33:40.773-08:00The Merchant of Venice (Act 4, Scene 1)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Act IV, scene i, lines 1–163</span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Summary</span></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">. . . [A]ffection,<br />Mistress of passion, sways it to the mood<br />Of what it likes or loathes.<br />. . .<br />So can I give no reason, nor I will not,<br />More than a lodged hate and a certain loathing<br />I bear Antonio, that I follow thus<br />A losing suit against him. Are you answered?</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In Venice, the Court convenes for Antonio’s trial. The duke of Venice greets Antonio and expresses pity for him, calling Shylock an inhuman monster who can summon neither pity nor mercy. Antonio says he knows the duke has done all that he can to lawfully counter Shylock’s malicious intentions, and that since nothing else can be done, Antonio will respond to Shylock’s rage “with a quietness of spirit” (IV.i.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">11</span>). The duke summons Shylock into the courtroom and addresses him, saying that he believes that Shylock means only to frighten Antonio by extending this drama to the brink of performance. No one, the duke says, believes that Shylock actually means to inflict such a horrible penalty on Antonio, who has already suffered the loss of his ships. Shylock reiterates his intentions and says that should the court deny him his right, the city’s very laws and freedoms will be forfeit. Shylock offers no explanation for his insistence other than to say that certain hatreds, like certain passions, are lodged deep within a person’s heart. Shylock hates Antonio, and for him that is reason enough.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Bassanio, who has arrived from Belmont, attempts to argue with Shylock, but Antonio tells him that his efforts are for naught. Hatred and predation, Antonio suggests, come as naturally to some men as they do to the wolf. Bassanio offers Shylock six thousand ducats, twice the amount of the original loan, but Shylock turns down the offer, saying he would not forfeit his bond for six times that sum. When the duke asks Shylock how he expects to receive mercy when he offers none, Shylock replies that he has no need for mercy, as he has done nothing wrong. Just as the slave-owning Christians of Venice would refuse to set their human property free, Shylock will not relinquish the pound of flesh that belongs to him.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The duke says that he has sent messages to the learned lawyer, Doctor Bellario, asking him to come and decide on the matter. News comes that a messenger has arrived from Bellario, and Salarino runs off to fetch him. Meanwhile, Bassanio tries, without much success, to cheer up the despairing Antonio. Nerissa enters, disguised as a lawyer’s clerk, and gives the duke a letter from Bellario. Shylock whets his knife, anticipating a judgment in his favor, and Gratiano accuses him of having the soul of a wolf. Shylock ignores these slurs and states resolutely, “I stand here for law” (IV.i.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">141</span>). The duke alludes to the fact that Bellario’s letter mentions a learned young lawyer named Balthasar, and orders the disguised Nerissa to admit the young man to the court. The duke then reads the letter in its entirety. In it, Bellario writes that he is ill and cannot come to court, but that he has sent the learned young Balthasar to judge in his stead.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">You will answer ‘The slaves are ours.’ So do I answer you.<br />The pound of flesh which I demand of him<br />Is dearly bought. ‘Tis mine, and I will have it.</span></blockquote>
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<b><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Act IV, scene i, lines 164–396</span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Summary</span></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">. . . Therefore, Jew,<br />Though justice be thy plea, consider this:<br />That in the course of justice none of us<br />Should see salvation. We do pray for mercy,<br />And that same prayer doth teach us all to render<br />The deeds of mercy. . . .</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Portia enters, disguised as Balthasar. The duke greets her and asks whether she is familiar with the circumstances of the case. Portia answers that she knows the case well, and the duke calls Shylock and Antonio before her. Portia asks Antonio if he admits to owing Shylock money. When Antonio answers yes, Portia concludes that the Jew must be merciful. Shylock asks why he must show mercy, and, in one of the play’s most famous speeches, Portia responds that “[t]he quality of mercy is not strained,” but is a blessing to both those who provide and those who receive it (IV.i.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">179</span>). Because mercy is an attribute of God, Portia reasons, humans approach the divine when they exercise it. Shylock brushes aside her pretty speech, however, by reiterating his demands for justice and revenge. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Portia asks whether Antonio is able to pay the money, and Bassanio offers Shylock twice the sum owed. If need be, Bassanio says, he is willing to pay the bond ten times over, or with his own life. Bassanio begs the court to bend the law slightly in order to exonerate Antonio, reasoning that such a small infraction is a little wrong for a great right. Portia replies, however, that the law shall not be broken—the decrees of Venice must stand. Shylock joyfully extols Portia’s wisdom, and gives her the bond for inspection. She looks it over, declares it legal and binding, and bids Shylock to be merciful. Shylock remains deaf to reason, however, and Portia tells Antonio to prepare himself for the knife. She orders Shylock to have a surgeon on hand to prevent the merchant from bleeding to death, but Shylock refuses because the bond stipulates no such safeguard.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Antonio bids Bassanio farewell. He asks his friend not to grieve for him and tells Bassanio that he is happy to sacrifice his life, if only to prove his love. Both Bassanio and Gratiano say that, though they love their wives, they would give them up in order to save Antonio. In a pair of sarcastic asides, Portia and Nerissa mutter that Bassanio’s and Gratiano’s wives are unlikely to appreciate such sentiments. Shylock is on the verge of cutting into Antonio when Portia suddenly reminds him that the bond stipulates a pound of flesh only, and makes no allowances for blood. She urges Shylock to continue collecting his pound of flesh, but reminds him that if a drop of blood is spilled, then he will be guilty of conspiring against the life of a Venetian citizen and all his lands and goods will be confiscated by the state. Stunned, Shylock hastily backpedals, agreeing to accept three times the sum, but Portia is insistent, saying that Shylock must have the pound of flesh or nothing. When Shylock finds out that he cannot even take the original three thousand ducats in place of the pound of flesh, he drops the case, but Portia stops him, reminding him of the penalty that noncitizens face when they threaten the life of a Venetian. In such a case, Portia states, half of Shylock’s property would go to the state, while the other half would go to the offended party—namely, Antonio. Portia orders Shylock to beg for the duke’s mercy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The duke declares that he will show mercy: he spares Shylock’s life and demands only a fine, rather than half of the Jew’s estate. Shylock claims that they may as well take his life, as it is worthless without his estate. Antonio offers to return his share of Shylock’s estate, on the condition that Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath all his goods to Jessica and Lorenzo upon his death. Shylock consents and departs, saying simply, “I am not well” (IV.i.<span class="small-caps" style="border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">392</span>).</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Summary: Act IV, scene i, lines 397–453</span></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">After Shylock leaves, the duke invites Portia, still in the disguise of a young lawyer, to dinner. Portia declines, saying that she must leave immediately for Padua. As she leaves, the duke tells Antonio to reward the young law clerk, since it was he who saved Antonio’s life. Bassanio thanks Portia, though he does not see through her disguise, and offers her the money he brought with him in order to pay off Shylock. Portia declines the gift and says that having delivered Antonio from Shylock’s clutches is payment enough. Bassanio insists that she take some token from him, and she eventually agrees. Portia asks Antonio for his gloves and Bassanio for his ring, which she herself gave Bassanio on the condition that he never part with it. Bassanio pulls his hand away, calling the ring a trifle and claiming that he will not dishonor the judge by giving him such a lowly gift. Instead, Bassanio offers to find the most valuable ring in Venice, but Portia remains firm, and demands the trifle or nothing. When Bassanio admits that the ring was a gift from his wife, who made him promise never to part with it, Portia claims that the excuse is convenient and used by many men to hold onto possessions they would rather not lose. With that, she takes her leave. Antonio urges Bassanio to let the law clerk have the ring, saying that he should value Antonio’s love and the gentleman’s worth more than his wife’s orders. Bassanio gives in and sends Gratiano to run after Portia and present her with the ring. Antonio and Bassanio then leave for Antonio’s house to plan their trip to Belmont.</span></div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-59053450600549596042013-01-31T06:45:00.004-08:002013-01-31T06:45:55.517-08:00Lady Lazarus (Summary)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The poem is spoken by Lady Lazarus, a speaker who shares a lot of similarities with the poet herself. Lady Lazarus begins by telling us that she has done "it" again. What is this "it"? We don't know at first. She compares herself to a Holocaust victim, and tell us that's she's only thirty years old, and that she has nine lives, like a cat. We soon figure out that "it" is dying; but, like the cat, she keeps returning to life.</div>
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She tells us about the first two times that she almost died, and tells us that dying "is an art." She says that dying is a theatrical event, and imagines that people come and see her do it. In fact, it starts to seem as if she's performing a third death in front of a crowd at a circus or carnival. She compares herself again to Holocaust victims, and imagines that she's been burned to death in a concentration camp crematorium. At the end of the poem, she resurrects (or returns to life from death) once again, and she "eat[s] men like air."</div>
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Lines 1-3</h2>
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<em>I have done it again.<br />One year in every ten<br />I manage it—</em></div>
<ul style="line-height: normal;">
<li>The poem begins on a strange note. A speaker—Lady Lazarus—tells us that she's "done it again." But what has she done? What is this mysterious "it"? Why does she do this "it" every ten years?</li>
<li>We won't actually find out the answer to these questions for a little while, so just hold your horses.</li>
<li>In the meantime, let's think about the speaker. Lady Lazarus is a fictional creation by the poet Sylvia Plath. We have to admit: Lady Lazarus has a whole lot in common with Plath herself (which you'll see as you keep reading). But Plath clearly takes pains to separate her real self from her poetry, so we're going to always refer to the speaker as Lady Lazarus.</li>
<li>Plath is getting all Biblical on us in this poem. Lazarus is a character from the New Testament who dies, and who Jesus brings back to life in the <a href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+11&version=NIV" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a>.</li>
<li>So why is our speaker named Lady Lazarus? Has she perhaps been resurrected (or brought back from the dead)? Let's read on to get some answers. (And for more on Lady L, check out what we have to say in the "<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/lady-lazarus/speaker.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Speaker">Speaker</a>" section of this learning guide).</li>
<li>And let's think about the poem's form for just a second. It's written in short, three-line <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/stanza.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="stanzas">stanzas</a> (also known as tercets) with super-short lines.</li>
<li>The poem is quick, clipped, brusque. There's not a lot of lingering over words. Lady Lazarus isn't into long drawn out lines or sentences. She moves quickly through language.</li>
<li>One last thing: you may have noticed that we have a <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/rhyme.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="rhyme">rhyme</a> going on in this first stanza (with the words "ten" and "again"). As you read on, you'll see that the poem has a lot of rhymes, but that they don't follow a specific pattern. If you're interested in form, head over to the "<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/lady-lazarus/rhyme-form-meter.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Form and Meter">Form and Meter</a>" section for the real skinny.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 4-9</h2>
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<em>A sort of walking miracle, my skin<br />Bright as a Nazi lampshade,<br />My right foot<br /><br />A paperweight,<br />My face a featureless, fine<br />Jew linen.</em></div>
<ul style="line-height: normal;">
<li>Now Lady Lazarus starts to describe herself, and it's, well, horrifying.</li>
<li>The first of these lines show us that, whatever she's managing to do, it makes her a walking miracle, which takes us back to the title; Lazarus was miraculously raised from the dead by Jesus. So, if we can make that connection, it's coming back from the dead that our speaker is managing every ten years, and that's what she's managed to do again.</li>
<li>Note that, between lines four and five, we see an example of <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/enjambment.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="enjambment">enjambment</a>—a thought being split between two lines. The split, in this case, divides the lines between the image of skin and the disturbing image of the Nazi lampshade.</li>
<li>Yep, that's right. Lady Lazarus compares herself to a "Nazi lampshade," to a "paperweight" and to "Jew linen."</li>
<li>What's up with all of the Holocaust references? Well, the poem was written in 1962, so <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/wwii/" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="World War II">World War II</a> and the<a href="http://www.history.com/topics/the-holocaust" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> weren't that far in the past. The atrocities of the Nazis still reverberated intensely in the world's imagination.</li>
<li>So let's break these comparisons down. Lady Lazarus is comparing herself to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust. The Nazis used the dead bodies of the slaughtered Jews in the production of objects, including (according to the rumors) lampshades and paperweights. (Are you feeling disgusted? We're not surprised; this is some pretty sick stuff we're dealing with.)</li>
<li>Lady Lazarus is making a whole bunch of <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/metaphor.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="metaphors">metaphors</a> and <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/simile.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="similes">similes</a> here. She is a living version—a "walking miracle"—of a lampshade made out of the bodies of murdered human beings. Sick.</li>
<li>The things for which her body is being used are so mundane that it's insulting—lampshades, paperweights. Her body is dead, torn apart to furnish someone else's living room or office.</li>
<li>Are you thinking to yourself: whoa, Lady L, that is a seriously intense metaphor? Have you been through a Holocaust? Do you really want to compare yourself to the Jewish victims of the Nazis? If you are thinking those thoughts, well, you're not alone. Some people think that Plath goes too far in her Holocaust metaphors. Some people disagree and think that they are the best way for her to express her pain.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 10-15</h2>
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<em>Peel off the napkin<br />O my enemy.<br />Do I terrify?—<br /><br />The nose, the eye pits, the full set of teeth?<br />The sour breath<br />Will vanish in a day.</em></div>
<ul style="line-height: normal;">
<li>Lady Lazarus knows she's freaking us out in this poem, and addresses us—her audience—directly. She tells us to "peel off the napkin," to (<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/figurative-language.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="figuratively">figuratively</a>) reveal her face. She calls us her "enemy." Thanks, Lady L, for making us feel welcome in your poem.</li>
<li>And for you Bible scholars out there, line 11 may be using a biblical <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/allusion.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="allusion">allusion</a> to <a href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Micah+7&version=KJV" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Micah 7:8">Micah 7:8</a>, in a moment in which the Jews address an enemy and then say: "Though I have fallen / I will rise." It's one of the many moments in the poem in which Lady Lazarus imagines that she has an intense connection with the Jewish people, although we're not quite sure who her enemy is—the Nazis? Death? Us? (Yikes.)</li>
<li>This address to the audience is called an <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/apostrophe.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="apostrophe">apostrophe</a>. Lady Lazarus speaks to several different audiences throughout the poem, but in this moment, she seems to be talking directly to us (shiver).</li>
<li>She then asks if she terrifies us, and our answer is: yes, obviously. Lady Lazarus knows how to wield power. We're quaking in our boots over here.</li>
<li>And, Lady L keeps at it. She describes what she looks like, and even this simple act takes on a grotesque tone. She<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/figurative-language.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="figures">figures</a> herself as a kind of living corpse, with "eye pits" instead of eyeballs, and "sour breath" that will disappear once she's actually dead—in a day.</li>
<li>This is some pretty intense <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/imagery.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="imagery">imagery</a>, if we do say so ourselves. Apparently, it's the zombie apocalypse, and Plath's here to tell us all about it.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 16-24</h2>
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<em>Soon, soon the flesh<br />The grave cave ate will be<br />At home on me<br /><br />And I a smiling woman.<br />I am only thirty.<br />And like the cat I have nine times to die.<br /><br />This is Number Three.<br />What a trash<br />To annihilate each decade.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>The poem really starts to come together in these <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/stanza.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="stanzas">stanzas</a>. Earlier, we had a whole bunch of grotesque bodily descriptions and references to Nazis. Now, Lady Lazarus gets more specific.</li>
<li>She's telling us that, soon—just as soon as the stale breath vanishes, we're guessing—the flesh that was eaten by her grave will feel at home on her.</li>
<li>In coming close to dying, it's like her grave ate her flesh. She has already started to rot. Lovely.</li>
<li>She tells us her age—thirty—and that she's smiling. What in the world does Lady L have to smile about? Maybe she's talking about how people <em>see </em>her. Maybe they're mistaking her grimace for a grin. Either way, it's a disturbing <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/imagery.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="image">image</a> in a poem about death.</li>
<li>Then she drops a little <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/simile.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="simile">simile</a> on us: she is like a cat. (Remember that old wives tale that says that cats have nine lives? That's what Plath is referring to here.) But instead of talking about the number of lives she has, she's talking about the number of deaths. Emo alert.</li>
<li>Lady Lazarus tells us that "this" is "Number Three." So she is somehow (in the imaginary time of the poem) experiencing her third death. If we think back to the first lines of them poem, we now know that the "it" is death.</li>
<li>But if she's dead, how is she speaking to us? And if she's alive, is she just playing dead? If she's just playing, where are her eyeballs? Why all the corpse imagery if she's alive? What's up with this flesh-consuming cave?</li>
<li>Unfortunately, we can't answer these questions. Fortunately, we're not supposed to! Plath's <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/ambiguity.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="ambiguity">ambiguity</a> here is so strong that it's impossible to decide if Lady L is dead or alive, and we think that's precisely the point.</li>
<li>We have to go with the poem's crazy logic and accept that the speaker can be dead and alive at the same time. In the world of the poem, even death is ambiguous.</li>
<li>Now, the speaker is giving more detail about her third time dying. Annihilation is a really cool word for destruction, so we're guessing that she feels as if she's been destroyed, once a decade.</li>
<li>Yet, she exclaims that she's trash. Her life, which is destroyed once every ten years, is nothing but trash in the first place. "Why not annihilate something worth destroying?" these lines seem to ask.</li>
<li>And let's not forget about form here. Notice all of the <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="internal rhymes">internal rhymes</a> in these stanzas, in words like "grave," "cave," and "ate," and in "nine" and "die." There are so many rhymes that it feels like the poem is collapsing in on itself. Like Lady Lazarus's world is shrinking, and everything now sounds the same to her.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 25-34</h2>
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<em>What a million filaments.<br />The peanut-crunching crowd<br />Shoves in to see<br /><br />Them unwrap me hand and foot—<br />The big strip tease.<br />Gentlemen, ladies<br /><br />These are my hands<br />My knees.<br />I may be skin and bone,<br /><br />Nevertheless, I am the same, identical woman.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>Though this line is in stanza 9, at first glance it could fit with either stanza 8 or stanza 9, sense-wise. Read a little more of the poem though, and it looks like this line elaborates on "What a trash," from line 23.</li>
<li>Regardless of where this line fits in the context of the poem, you might be asking, what in the world does it mean?</li>
<li>Well, filaments are like tiny little strings. You can have filaments of gold, filaments of hair, filaments of wire, filaments of cells. A filament can also be a tiny part of a flower, or the wire inside a light bulb, which is the part that actually lights up.</li>
<li>We think that, though our speaker took all of those meanings into account, she's imagining her own body as a million little strands of fine linen.</li>
<li>And, as she said in lines 23 and 24, these filaments are trash, to be annihilated each decade.</li>
<li>Now Lady Lazarus imagines that she's in front of a "peanut-crunching crowd." We're imagining she's at a circus or a carnival. And, it turns out, she's the main event. Folks are so excited, they're shoving their way in to see her.</li>
<li>The crowd unwraps her clothing, and she's forced into an imaginary striptease. They can see her body parts—her hands, her knees, her skin and bone.</li>
<li>This is another violent set of stanzas. In this imaginary scene, Lady Lazarus loses control of her body. It seems fun for the crowd—they are crunching peanuts, after all, but this is a violent experience for Lady L. She is an object of spectacle for a hungry crowd.</li>
<li>But, she tells us, she is the "same, identical woman." What does Lady L mean here? We can think of two options:</li>
<li>One, she's the same naked as she was clothed, which means that she is the same before and after her public stripping. In other words, this experience hasn't changed her.</li>
<li>Or, we could take a different tack. She is the same woman now as she was before her death. (This scene, after all, is happening in the kind of lifey-deathy limbo that Lady L is imagining.)</li>
<li>Our speaker is stressing that though she's come back from the dead, she hasn't changed. There has been no metamorphosis, and yes, it's truly her, coming back again, and not some twin pretending to be her. Her feat, of coming back from the dead, was real.</li>
<li>Finally, note the weird power dynamic going on in this poem. Lady L seems so in control of her precise, curt language, but this contrasts with the powerlessness that she feels as an object (or even a victim) of the crowd. And let's not forget that she casts herself not just as the object of a circus spectacle, but also as a Holocaust victim.</li>
<li>So who ultimately has the power in the poem? It's up for you to decide!</li>
</ul>
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Lines 35-42</h2>
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<em>The first time it happened I was ten.<br />It was an accident.<br /><br />The second time I meant<br />To last it out and not come back at all.<br />I rocked shut<br /><br />As a seashell.<br />They had to call and call<br />And pick the worms off me like sticky pearls.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>Here, Lady Lazarus decides to fill us in a bit on her first two lives, or really, her first two deaths.</li>
<li>Once again, we have that mysterious "it"—but now we know that that "it" equals "death."</li>
<li>Or, does it? We might try to be a bit more accurate. We find out in these lines that Lady L's first "death" was an accident. Her second death was on purpose, though. She "meant" to "not come back at all." But, she was found and brought back to life.</li>
<li>With all of this information in mind, it's a little clearer what's going on. Lady L is talking about all of the times that she<em>almost </em>died. She doesn't actually have nine lives, not even in the world of the poem.</li>
<li>To sum up, she once came close to death because of an accident when she was ten. Then, she tried to commit suicide and failed.</li>
<li>Sylvia Plath, by the way, tried to commit suicide during her college years. She took a whole bunch of sleeping pills and then hid in the crawl space of her mother's house. (She writes about this incident in her autobiographical novel<em><a href="http://www.amazon.com/The-Bell-Jar-Sylvia-Plath/dp/0061148512/" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="The Bell Jar">The Bell Jar</a></em>.)</li>
<li>Plath uses a pretty powerful <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/simile.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="simile">simile</a> here; she says that she "rocked shut / as a seashell." She creates a powerful image of Lady Lazarus, all curled up, trying to shut the world out, trying to harden and die.</li>
<li>Then "they"—whose who want to rescue her, have to repeatedly call for her, and pick worms off of her as if they're pearls. Are the worms real? Are they in her imagination? We can't know for sure, but the simile comparing worms to "sticky pearls" creates another <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/imagery.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="image">image</a> in our minds—this time of an oyster, all shut up. And it connects that shut-up sea creature with death, when a body becomes worm food, not to put too fine a point on it. It's as if, even though she survived, she was already dead, just for a little bit. The worms were already eating her.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 43-50</h2>
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<em>Dying<br />Is an art, like everything else.<br />I do it exceptionally well.<br /><br />I do it so it feels like hell.<br />I do it so it feels real.<br />I guess you could say I've a call.<br /><br />It's easy enough to do it in a cell.<br />It's easy enough to do it and stay put.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>Here, Lady Lazarus tells us what is perhaps the greatest truth of this poem: dying is an art. It may not be an art for everyone, or even for anyone other than Lady L, but she certainly turns her death into art (i.e., she turns it into this poem).</li>
<li>These line breaks, which use <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/enjambment.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="enjambment">enjambment</a>, are genius. When we read "dying" on the first line of this stanza, we'd expect something depressing to follow.</li>
<li>Instead, when we jump down to the next line, we hear that dying is an art and apparently that everything else is an art, too. This means that brushing your teeth, driving to school or work, even going to the bathroom—that's art. Imagine an entire reality T.V. show, dedicated to the art of brushing one's teeth.</li>
<li>But the focus here is on death—if life is art, these lines suggests, then death must be art, too. And our speaker says she's an artistic genius at dying—she does it very well.</li>
<li>Or…wait a second. If she's come close, but not quite made it to death three times, she's actually quite awful at the art of dying.</li>
<li>So, dying isn't necessarily the art she does well—it's coming back from being almost dead she's a rock star at.</li>
<li>Things start getting really rhythmic here. The poem doesn't have a strict <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/meter.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="meter">meter</a>, but in this moment, patterns emerge. We have the<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/rhyme.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="rhymes">rhymes</a> of "well" and "hell" and all of the <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/slant-rhyme.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="slant rhymes">slant rhymes</a> of "real," "call," and "cell."</li>
<li>The beginning of the lines repeat each other (this is called<a href="http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/anaphterm.htm" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;">anaphora</a>) and have similar word choice (also known as <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/diction.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="diction">diction</a>), which means they have the same <a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/501933/rhythm" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;">rhythm</a>. The rhythm is fast and biting. We almost feel like Lady Lazarus is taunting us—like she's daring at us to challenge her.</li>
<li>This is a lady who knows how to be forceful when she needs to be (which is apparently right now).</li>
<li>And she tells us that she does "it" (again, that mysterious "it") so that it "feels like hell" and "feels real." Or, in other words, she comes close to death—or, to be more explicit, she attempts suicide—so that she can feel something. She's drawn to death; she has "a call."</li>
<li>Usually, death is something that happens to us; it's not something that we have control over or choose to do. But here, Lady Lazarus is taking control over her own death. Perhaps she's using suicide to express her control over her life. It's a strange way of thinking about death, that's for sure, but we wouldn't put it past ol' Sylvia.</li>
<li>We can now be sure that we're listening to the thoughts of an extremely depressed and disturbed person. Of course, part of the wonderfulness of the poem is its grotesqueness, but in moments like these, it's hard to forget that behind these lines is probably severe mental illness.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 51-64</h2>
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<em>It's the theatrical<br /><br />Comeback in broad day<br />To the same place, the same face, the same brute<br />Amused shout:<br /><br />"A miracle!"<br />That knocks me out.<br />There is a charge<br /><br />For the eyeing of my scars, there is a charge<br />For the hearing of my heart—<br />It really goes.<br /><br />And there is a charge, a very large charge<br />For a word or a touch<br />Or a bit of blood<br /><br />Or a piece of my hair or my clothes.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>Now we are back in the realm of the circus or carnival; Lady Lazarus tells us that she's making a theatrical comeback. She represents her resurrection—her coming back to life—as a circus act. She's quite the spectacle.</li>
<li>Someone—a brute—shouts that she's a "miracle." Well, we heard that before, way back in stanza 2.</li>
<li>She says that this "knocks her out." Usually this phrase is a <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/metaphor.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="metaphor">metaphor</a> for being surprised or amazed, but in this moment in the poem, it takes on a violent undertone, as if she's in a boxing match.</li>
<li>As Lady L says, "there is a charge." That means people have to drop some dough to see the spectacle she puts on. If people want to see her scars, they have to pay. They have to pay to hear her heart beat, and they have to pay a whole lot of money to hear her speak, to touch her, or to take a bit of her blood, hair, or clothes.</li>
<li>The items that she's "charging" for get increasingly more personal. The lowest "charges" are just for looking at her; the largest ones are for an actual piece of her (her blood, her hair).</li>
<li>We think that Lady Lazarus is being <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/figurative-language.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="figurative">figurative</a> here. She's not actually at a circus, and she's not actually charging money for people to come and see her.</li>
<li>But the important thing is that this is how Lady L <em>feels.</em> She feels like she's in a circus act, like everyone wants to gaze upon her pain for their enjoyment. She feels like everyone wants a piece of her—her hair, her clothes, her heartbeat, her blood.</li>
<li>Notice that Lady Lazarus is always casting herself as a victim. First, she's a victim of the Nazis, who use her skin to make lampshades. Now, she's a circus freak who everyone wants to see to admire her pain. She may seem like a miracle to everyone else, but it sounds like our Lady just wants to be left alone. And there's once again a contrast between Lady L's powerful voice, and the powerless roles in which she casts herself.</li>
<li>Is she a powerful woman? A hapless victim? Can she be both at the same time?</li>
<li>And we can't forget to mention the sounds, too. We've got the <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/rhyme.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="rhyme">rhyme</a> of "shout" and "out," plus the <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/slant-rhyme.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="slant rhyme ">slant rhyme</a> of "scars," "charge," and "heart." Once again, there's kind of a closed-in feeling in these <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/stanza.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="stanzas">stanzas</a>. The sounds repeat themselves, just as our speaker keeps repeating this spectacle—dying and coming back to life.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 65-72</h2>
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<em>So, so, Herr Doktor.<br />So, Herr Enemy.<br /><br />I am your opus,<br />I am your valuable,<br />The pure gold baby<br /><br />That melts to a shriek.<br />I turn and burn.<br />Do not think I underestimate your great concern.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>Lady Lazarus's fixation on the Nazis returns in these lines. She addresses a Nazi figure—a doctor and enemy—and once again represents herself as a Jewish person in relation to him. ("Herr" is a German word that translates to "Mr." or "Sir.")</li>
<li>During the Holocaust, Nazi doctors performed a ton of cruel and lethal experiments on Jewish people. They also placed millions of Jews in gas chambers and crematoriums, and gassed or burned them alive. This is what Plath is referring to in these lines; she's setting herself up as a victim of the Nazis. She imagines that she's burning along with the Jews.</li>
<li>It also tells us who her enemy is—the doctor. Sure, she could just be figuratively speaking here, but we might assume that our speaker, who's clearly suffering from some sort of mental illness, is no fan of the doctors who keep bringing her back from the dead.</li>
<li>Lady L makes a whole bunch of <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/metaphor.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="metaphors">metaphors</a> to get her point across again. She's an "opus" (or piece of literary or musical work). She's a valuable. She's a "pure gold baby" "that melts to a shriek." (When gold melts, it doesn't melt into a shriek, and our speaker isn't actually a pure gold baby. But that's what she feels like, and we're betting, with all the pain she's feeling, she's doing a good bit of real-life shrieking.)</li>
<li>Lady L is continuing the references to the Nazi crematoriums, in which the Nazis burned the possessions of the Jews along with the human beings. She's also describing herself as something that belongs to others, once again casting herself as a victim with no control over her life.</li>
<li>These lines make us think, if the speaker is so valuable to the doctor, then maybe she's not the one charging for little pieces of herself after all. Maybe, it's the doctor who is charging people, and letting them take little bits of the speaker. He's reaping all of the profits of her pain. This aligns with the view of the doctor as German—during World War II, the Germans profited from the possessions and labor of the Jewish people whom they massacred.</li>
<li>And the final line here is <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/irony.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="ironic">ironic</a>; Plath knows that Nazis were not concerned for the well-being of the Jews.</li>
<li>Did you notice that intense <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/rhyme.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="rhyme">rhyme</a> of "burn" and "concern"? The rhyme underlines the fact that the Nazis, in fact, have absolutely no concern for the burning and gassing of millions.</li>
<li>What do you make of the fact that Plath, through Lady Lazarus, is making all of these references to the Holocaust? Is she trivializing a horrific event that led to the death of millions? Or is she making a legitimate comparison in an attempt to convey to us how terrible her pain really is? It's a question that's ripe for debate.</li>
</ul>
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Lines 73-81</h2>
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<em>Ash, ash—<br />You poke and stir.<br />Flesh, bone, there is nothing there—<br /><br />A cake of soap,<br />A wedding ring,<br />A gold filling.<br /><br />Herr God, Herr Lucifer<br />Beware<br />Beware.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>Lady Lazarus extends the Holocaust <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/metaphor.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;">metaphor</a> even further here. She imagines that in this, her third death, she has been burned alive in a concentration camp crematorium.</li>
<li>She imagines a Nazi looking through the crematorium after it has burned its victims; there's only "ash, ash." There is no flesh or bone.</li>
<li>There are few remnants of the human beings burned alive inside: just a wedding ring and a gold filling. The Nazis used to turn whatever remains they could find into soap (we can't help but experience revulsion over here), and Lady L imagines that the Nazi sees the future soap he will make out of these ashes and traces of human bodies. Ugh.</li>
<li>Lady Lazarus's tone here starts to change. Earlier in the poem, she seemed pretty powerless. Everyone was watching her, or so she imagined. But now that she's dead, she imagines herself in a position of power. Instead of being watched by Nazis, she herself is watching the Nazis poke around in the crematorium. She is the seer, not the object to be seen.</li>
<li>And she seems to be building to a crescendo in these lines; she says "beware / beware"—as if she is about to warn the Nazis of something. Plus, Herr Doktor has transformed into Herr God, Herr Lucifer. In other words, she's comparing this doctor to both God and the devil—all male figures who seem to have power over her in some way. At least for now.</li>
<li>These bewares, by the way, may be a reference to <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/coleridge/" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Coleridge's">Coleridge's</a>poem "<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/kubla-khan/" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Kubla Khan">Kubla Khan</a>," which features the lines "And all who heard should see them there, / And all should cry, Beware! Beware! / His flashing eyes, his floating hair!"</li>
<li>Lady Lazarus just might be comparing herself to Kubla Khan—the wild man with flashing eyes—in this famous<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/romanticism.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="Romantic">Romantic</a> poem.</li>
<li>The speaker's voice is taking on some serious strength here. She's straight-up warning God <em>and </em>the devil. What exactly does she have planned?</li>
</ul>
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Lines 82-84</h2>
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<em>Out of the ash<br />I rise with my red hair<br />And I eat men like air.</em></div>
<ul>
<li>This is what we've been waiting for: Lady Lazarus rises again. Boom goes the dynamite. Take that, Herr Doktor.</li>
<li>She imagines that she's been burnt to death by the Nazis, but here she resurrects. She stays true to her name. But unlike the Lazarus in the Bible, she doesn't need Jesus (or anyone) to make her resurrection happen. She does it all on her own.</li>
<li>She may share her name with Lazarus the Bible character, but here, Lady L seems a lot more like the phoenix, a mythical bird that bursts into flames and then is reborn out of its ashes.</li>
<li>And then, once she has resurrected, what does she do? She "eat[s] men like air." Does this mean that she eats men as if they were nothing, like air is nothing? Do they taste like nothing to her? Does she eat only unsubstantial men? Does this line refer to men and only men, or does it encompass women, too (as in, mankind)?</li>
<li>And why does she eat these men? Is she hungry? (Probably not.) Is this her way of gaining power and control? Is this a way for her to control the meaning of her own death? Perhaps she refuses to be killed by the Nazis again in her next life, and vows to take control of her death and plan it her way.</li>
<li>There are lots of <a href="http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/ambiguity.html" style="color: #0e2a9a; text-decoration: initial;" title="ambiguities">ambiguities</a> at the end of this poem, which leaves a lot of room for interpretation, so get cracking, folks.</li>
<li>But if we at Shmoop just had to tell you our most favorite interpretation, we'd tell you this: in this poem, death offers Lady L the possibility of control—and that control is what Lady Lazarus is really looking for.</li>
<li>But hey, Shmoopers, just keep in mind that Lady Lazarus is a mentally ill, terrible, horrible, no good, very bad role model.</li>
<li>If you want to roll with her, roll with her awesome rhymes and images; leave death at the door.</li>
</ul>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-15537749362298938772013-01-31T06:34:00.000-08:002013-01-31T06:34:01.616-08:00Mark Twain's Short Story 'LUCK' (notes)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> Luck (by Mark Twain)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<b>ANNOUNCER:</b></span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Now, the Special English
program, AMERICAN STORIES. Our story today is called, "Luck." It was
written by Mark Twain. Here is Shep O'Neal with the story.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">NARRATOR:</span></b><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I was at a dinner in London given in honor of one of the
mos</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">t
celebrated English military men of his time. I do not want to tell you his real
name and titles. I will just call him Lieutenant General Lord Arthur Scoresby.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">I cannot describe my
excitement when I saw this great and famous man. There he sat. The man h</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">imself,
in person, all covered with medals. I could not take my eyes off him. He seemed
to show the true mark of greatness. His fame had no effect on him.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The hundreds of eyes
watching him, the worship of so many people did not seem to make any difference</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
to him.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Next to me sat a
clergyman, who was an old friend of mine. He was not always a clergyman. During
the first half of his life, he was a teacher in the military school at
Woolwich. There was a strange look in his eye as he leaned toward me and whisp</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ered,
"Privately - he is a complete fool." He meant, of course, the hero of
our dinner.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This came as a shock to me. I looked hard at my friend. I could
not have been more surprised if he had said the same thing about Napoleon, or
Socrates, or Solomon.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bu</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">t I was sure of two things about the clergyman. He
always spoke the truth. And his judgement of men was good. Therefore, I wanted
to find out more about our hero as soon as I could.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Some days later I got a
chance to talk with the clergyman and he told me </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">more. These are his
exact words:</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"About forty years ago, I was an instructor in the military
academy at Woolwich, when young Scoresby was given his first examination. I
felt extremely sorry for him. Everybody answered the questions well,
intelligently, wh</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ile he - why, dear me - he did not know anything, so
to speak. He was a nice, pleasant young man. It was painful to see him stand
there and give answers that were miracles of stupidity.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"I knew of course
that when examined again he would fail and be throw</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">n
out. So, I said to myself, it would be a simple, harmless act to help him, as
much as I could.<br />
"I took him aside and found he knew a little about Julius Caesar's
history. But he did not know anything else. So I went to work and tested him
and worked him like a slave. I made him work, over and over again, on a few
questions about Caesar which I knew he would be asked.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"If you will believe
me, he came through very well on the day of the examination. He got high
praise, too, while others who knew a thousand</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> times more than he
was sharply criticized. By some strange, lucky accident, he was asked no
questions but those I made him study. Such an accident does not happen more
than once in a hundred years.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Well, all through his studies, I stood by him, with
th</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">e
feeling a mother has for a disabled child. And he always saved himself, by some
miracle.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"I thought that what
in the end would destroy him would be the mathematics examination. I decided to
make his end as painless as possible. So, I pushed facts into h</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">is
stupid head for hours. Finally, I let him go to the examination to experience
what I was sure would be his dismissal from school. Well, sir, try to imagine
the result. I was shocked out of my mind. He took first prize! And he got the
highest praise.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"I</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> felt guilty day and night - what I was doing was not
right. But I only wanted to make his dismissal a little less painful for him. I
never dreamed it would lead to such strange, laughable results.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"I thought that
sooner or later one thing was sure to hap</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pen: The first real test once he
was through school would ruin him.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Then, the Crimean War broke out. I felt that sad for
him that there had to be a war. Peace would have given this donkey a chance to
escape from ever being found out as being so stupid. N</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ervously,
I waited for the worst to happen. It did. He was appointed an officer. A
captain, of all things! Who could have dreamed that they would place such a
responsibility on such weak shoulders as his.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"I said to myself that I was responsible to the co</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">untry
for this? I must go with him and protect the nation against him as far as I
could. So, I joined up with him. And away we went to the field.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"And there - oh,
dear, it was terrible. Mistakes, fearful mistakes - why, he never did anything
that was righ</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">t - nothing but mistakes. But, you see, nobody knew the secret of
how stupid he really was. Everybody misunderstood his actions. They saw his
stupid mistakes as works of great intelligence. They did, honestly! His
smallest mistakes made a man in his right mind cry - and shout and scream, too
- to himself, of course. And what kept me in a continual fear was the fact that
every mistake he made increased his glory and fame.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"I kept saying to
myself that when at last they find out about him, it will be like th</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">e
sun falling out of the sky.<br />
"He continued to climb up, over the dead bodies of his superiors. Then, in
the hottest moment of one battle down went our colonel. My heart jumped into my
mouth, for Scoresby was the next in line to take his place. Now, we are in for
it, I said.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"The battle grew hotter. The English and their allies were
steadily retreating all over the field. Our regiment occupied a position that
was extremely important. One mistake now would bring total disaster. And what
did Scoresby do this</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> time? He just mistook his left hand for his right
hand…that was all. An order came for him to fall back and support our right.
Instead, he moved forward and went over the hill to the left.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">We were over the hill
before this insane movement could be discov</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ered and stopped. And what did we
find? A large and unsuspecting Russian army waiting! And what happened? Were we
all killed? That is exactly what would have happened in ninety-nine cases out
of a hundred. But no - those surprised Russians thought that no one regiment by
itself would come around there at such a time.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"It must be the whole British army, they thought.
They turned tail. Away they went over the hill and down into the field in wild
disorder, and we after them. In no time, there was the greatest</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
turn-around you ever saw. The allies turned defeat into a sweeping and shining
victory.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"The allied
commander looked on, his head spinning with wonder, surprise and joy. He sent
right off for Scoresby, and put his arms around him and hugged him on the fi</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">eld
in front of all the armies.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Scoresby became famous that day as a great military
leader, honored throughout the world. That honor will never disappear while
history books last.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"He is just as nice and pleasant as ever, but he
still does not know enou</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">gh to come in, out of the rain. He is the stupidest
man in the universe.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Until now, nobody knew its but Scoresby and myself.
He has been followed, day by day, year by year, by a strange luck. He has been
a shining soldier in all our wars for years. He ha</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">s
filled his whole military life with mistakes. Every one of them brought him
another honorary title.</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">"Look at his chest, flooded with British and foreign
medals. Well, sir, every one of them is the record of some great stupidity or
other. They are proof </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">that the best thing that can happen to a man is to be
born lucky. I say again, as I did at the dinner, Scoresby's a complete
fool."</span><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ANNOUNCER:</span></b><span style="font-family: 'MS Mincho'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">You have just heard the story "Luck." It was
written by Mark Twain and adapted for Special English by Harold Ber</span><span style="font-family: Cambria, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">man.
Your narrator was Shep O'Neal. Listen again next week at this same time for
another AMERICAN STORY told in Special English, on the Voice of America. This
is Susan Clark.</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-82324658565906046002012-12-03T06:29:00.001-08:002012-12-03T07:16:53.940-08:00Reuben Bright<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Px8OuW5hBoM/ULy24e82O0I/AAAAAAAAADg/hEMbLtw9eNI/s1600/Stick_Reuben_Bright_Page_850.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Px8OuW5hBoM/ULy24e82O0I/AAAAAAAAADg/hEMbLtw9eNI/s640/Stick_Reuben_Bright_Page_850.jpg" width="461" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<div align="center" class="style39" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 3px;">
<span class="style56" style="font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold;">Reuben Bright</span><br />
by E. A. Robinson</div>
<div class="style39" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 3px;">
Because he was a butcher and thereby<br />
Did earn an honest living (and did right),<br />
I would not have you think that Reuben Bright<br />
Was any more a brute than you or I;<br />
For when they told him that his wife must die, 5<br />
He stared at them, and shook with grief and fright,<br />
And cried like a great baby half that night,<br />
And made the women cry to see him cry.<br />
<br />
And after she was dead, and he had paid<br />
The singers and the sexton and the rest, 10<br />
He packed a lot of things that she had made<br />
Most mournfully away in an old chest<br />
Of hers, and put some chopped-up cedar boughs<br />
In with them, and tore down the slaughter-house.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dy_TV-HX-4U9nlwwcW2kn5ajBVpO3SBK04ZTkazFoapFWAZmfHpkFAN2Mw0qCjVAkZUBQ4NdgZyb5vnyWkoBQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-25475008303997203832012-12-02T06:54:00.002-08:002012-12-02T06:54:26.595-08:00III Semester (General English Notes)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: red;">Classic Assets </span></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My
Vision for India<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Dr.
A.P.J Abdul Kalam was the President of India between 2002 and 2007. He became the 11<sup>th</sup> President of
Indian and is one of the most distinguished scientists of India. He was born in Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu. The essay is one of the most popular speeches
of Abdul Kalam. He wants the Indians to be more responsible and to take care of
future India and plea to change their attitudes to feel pride of the nation and
appreciate the wealth and advancements in India. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First
Vision:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Kalam
has three main visions about India. The
first vision is that of ‘Freedom’.
Though many countries invaded us, captured us, conquered our minds
starting from Alexander to that of British Government who came and looted us
completely and yet we have not done this to any other nation since we respect
the freedom of others. That is why the
vision of Kalam was that of ‘Freedom’.
He believes that India got its first vision of freedom in the year 1857
when India first started the war of Independence. We must protect and nurture
our freedom otherwise no country will respect us.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second
Vision:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
second vision of Kalam is ‘Development’.
For the past 50 years we have been a developing nation. It is time to
look upon ourselves as a development nation.
We are among top 5 nations of the world in GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
and 10% growth in most areas. We
achieved globally in major fields but still we lack self confidence to see our
nation as a developed one. We should
change this nature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Third
Vision:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
third vision is that India must stand up to the world. Unless we stand up to the world no one will
respect. Only strength respects
strength. We must be strong not only as
a military power but also as an economic power and both must go hand in hand. He feels very proud to work along with great
minds such as Dr. Vikram Sarabhai of the Dept. of Space, Prof. Satish Dhawan
who succeeded him and Dr. Brahm Prakash, father of nuclear material.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Media
Exposure in India:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> We
are a great nation, and we stand first in milk production, second in wheat
production yet we lack to recognize our own strengths and achievements. We have millions of such achievement, still
our media is only obsessed (fixed) with bad news, failures and disasters. Kalam
narrates an incident that took place in Israel.
Once he was in Tel Aviv, reading an Israeli newspaper and it was the day
after lot of attacks and deaths, but the front page had the picture of Jewish
gentlemen who in five years had transformed a desert into an orchid and a
granary (place to store grains). The
killings, attacks and death were described in middle paper and were buried with
other news. Why Indian newspapers are so
NEGATIVE?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Adapting
foreign culture:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Kalam
once went to Hyderabad and he got an opportunity to meet a 14 year old girl who
asked for an autograph. He asked her
what her goal in life is. She replied
that, she wanted to live in a developed India.
For her, we should build a developed nation by working together and by
praising our own culture. In Singapore we don’t throw cigarette butts or eat in
stores, we wouldn’t eat in public during Ramdan (festival) in Dubai, we don’t
dare to drive in Washington and tell traffic police that I am so and so’s son,
or chuck an empty coconut shell in the beaches of Australia and New
Zealand. We will throw cigarette butts
and throw papers on the road the moment we touch Indian soil. Why is that we can’t follow the same as we
respect the foreign system?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blaming
others:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> We
wanted to sit back comfortably and expecting someone to pamper us in all deeds.
We expect the government to clean the garbage all over the place, but we will
never stop throwing stray papers. We
blame Indian Railways and Indian Airlines to provide the best in everything but
we fail to learn the proper use of Public property. We talk about burning social issues like
dowry, child marriage but we fail to follow them when it comes to our own
life. We vacate India to foreign nation
in order to earn more money, if there is some problem they will plead to Indian
government to save them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> “ASK WHAT WE CAN DO FOR INDIA AND DO WHAT HAS
TO BE DONE TO MAKE INDIA WHAT AMERICA AND OTHER WESTERN COUNTRIES ARE TODAY”. The
article was written by Kalam to create awareness amongst the Indian and a call upon
to all the Indian citizens to contribute towards making our country a great
one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">On
Saying Please<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alfred George
Gardiner was a British journalist and author.
His essay written under the pen-name called Alpha of the Plough. In this essay Gardiner points out that good
manners is essential in all human beings but not following of it is not
punishable under law. He also
concentrates on the sterling character of particular bus conductor in the essay
‘<i>On Saying Please’. </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
fired Lift-man:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A
young lift-man in a city office who threw a passenger out off was fired
(dismissed) as a fine for the offence he committed. The person who entered the lift said ‘Top’,
but the lift-man demanded ‘Top, Please’.
Since the passenger refused the lift-man threw him out from the lift. Discourtesy (Rude Behavior) is not a legal
offence. If a thief breaks into one’s house and he/she knocks the thief down
the law will free him. If we have the
freedom to box people’s ears (punch) because we did not like their behavior, or
the tone of voice, our fist would never be idle and the gutters will run with
blood all day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Law’s
on Manners:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> There
is no law against bad manners. At the
same time violence will not be allowed. Gardiner says that the action against
the life-man was justified. Law protects
one from violence. There is no law to
force anyone to say ‘Please’ or ‘Thank you’.
It does not force any one to adjust the voice to the feelings of others.
It does not also say that one should wax moustache or dye one’s hair. No rewards through law for the wound of a
person’s feeling. The lift-man brooding over the insult by the hour would visit
his wife in the evening is the only way to restore the equilibrium by showing
his anger to his wife. The lift-man
perhaps felt insulted and it is an insult for his self respect. He loses his mental balance. Thus his bad temper affects many
persons. Bad manners poison the even
flow of life and there is not court that regulates the social behavior of a
person. Even the Ten Commandments do not
provide for protection.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Customs
sacred than law:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Social
customs made us civil and courteous in society.
‘Please’ and ‘Thank you’ are the first essential needs of society which
keep the machine of life oiled and running sweetly. There is no question of superior or inferior
in such a case. There is no question of
getting the service done through order. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Polite
Conductor:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Once
the author jumped on to a bus and found that he had no money in his pocket and
told the fact to the conductor. The
conductor works in Underground Railway Company, which also runs the buses. The
conductor readily gave him the ticket and told him that he could pay the money
when he had the chance to meet him. Luckily, the author found a shilling (coin)
in the corner of one of his pocket and squared him (paid the amount). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Few
days later, the author’s most sensitive toe was trampled on rather heavily as
he sat reading on the top of a bus. He
looked up with some anger and more agony and saw the most cheerful
conductor. He at once said ‘Sorry, sir’;
I know these are heavy boots. Hope I didn’t hurt you. After this incident the author began to admire
him whenever he boarded his bus. He
noticed that if it was raining he would run up the stairs to give someone the
tip that there was a room inside. With
old people he was as considerate as a son, and with children as kind as a
father. If a blind person on board he takes extra care to drop him the other
side of the road.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quoting
Keats:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What
struck the author was the ease with which he got through his work. If bad manners are infectious, so also are
good manners. ‘NOTHING CLEARS UP MY
SPIRITS LIKE A FINE DAY’ said Keats. In
lightening their spirits he lightened his own task. His liveliness and fun was not a wasteful
luxury, but a sound investment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He
adds up the comment on the lift-man by narrating a story of Chesterfield. In his time the London streets were without
pavements of today, and a man who took the wall had the driest footing. ‘I
never give the wall to a scoundrel’ said a man who met Chesterfield one day in
the street. ‘I always do’ said Chesterfield, stepping with a bow into the
road. The author hopes that the lift-man
will agree this revenge was much sweeter than to assault or harm someone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Lady or the Tiger<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> F.R.
Stockton was an American humorist and writer.
He first attracted notice by his stories for children; soon he gained
popularity through the story called ‘The Lady or the Tiger’. Though it cannot be considered a model short
story, it is interesting in its own way. The story revolves around a
semi-barbaric king who tries to reform and refine his subjects through a
special kind of punishment. The King’s peculiar way of meting out justice is
narrated humorously. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Semi-barbaric
king:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
king was a semi-barbaric ruler and a man of great fancy. He implemented his ideas using his authority. He would think over an issue and once he was
convinced, he would follow his ideas. He
had a barbaric method (cruel method) of administering justice which looked very
fair. The fate of the accused person
would be decided in King’s arena. The
accused person had the choice of opening one of two similar looking doors and
could be killed by a tiger or could marry a beautiful woman. The King thought that the cruel practice will
refine his subjects and culture the minds of the people who live in the
kingdom. The practice is impartial and incorruptible at any chance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Door
with the Tiger:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
accused subjects were asked to step inside the amphitheatre and directly
opposite to them were two doors. The subject would walk directly to the doors
and open one of them. He could open
either door he pleased. If he opens the open, there came out a hungry tiger,
the fiercest and cruelest immediately sprang upon him and tore him to pieces as
punishment. The audience in the public
arena would walk slowly toward homeward mourning greatly for the dead souls.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Door
with the Lady:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If
the accused person opened the other door, there came forth from it a lady. The most suitable to his years and to this
lady the accused subject was immediately married as a reward of his
innocence. Once the lady comes out, another
door opens beneath the king, and a priest followed by a band of choirs and the
wedding was promptly cheered. This was
the King’s semi-barbaric method of administering justice. The accused person
was instantly punished if he found himself guilty and if innocent he was
rewarded on the spot whether he liked it or not. There was no escape from the judgment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">King’s
Daughter and Her Love:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
king had a daughter and she was the apple of his eyes and was loved by him
above all humanity. Among the subjects a
man of that fineness of blood and lowness of station loved the king’s daughter. The love affair moved on happily for many
months, until one day king happened to discover it. The youth was immediately cast into prison
and a day was appointed for his trail (punishment) in the public arena.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
tiger cages searched for the most savage and horrible beast and the hunt for
the suitable lady for the marriage were on.
The appointed day arrived. The
signal was given. The youth advanced into the arena. His eyes were fixed upon the princess (King’s
daughter). When her lover turned and
looked at her, she looked pale and white.
She knew behind which door crouches the tiger and behind which door
stood the lady. Quick glances were
shared and the answer reached the young maiden who loved the King’s daughter.
She had a difficult decision to make, whether to save the young man from death
or to allow him to another woman. She raised her hand and made a slight, quick
movement towards the right. Without
slightest hesitation he went to the door on the right and opened it. Now the
point of the story is this: <i>DID THE TIGER
CAME OUT OF THE DOOR OF DID THE LADY?<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
writer leaves it to the imagination of the readers as to what came out of the
opened door the lady of the tiger. For, how could we be sure that the princess
would let the young man live and marry the lady when she loved him so much
herself? Again however jealous she is, would the princess lead young man to a
wrong choice and be eaten by the tiger?
The readers should settle if for them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How
to be a Doctor<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Leacock
published what many consider is literary masterpiece. He wrote two excellent biographies: ‘Mark
Twain’ published in 1932, and ‘Charles Dickens, His Life and Work’ in 1933. In
this lesson, he discusses the advancement of the medical profession. Yet, there are many ways by which he
criticizes at the doctors and their noble profession. The large exposure to the
medical treatment is what is attractive to the general public which is
ridiculed by the author.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advancement
of Science:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
progress (growth) of science is a wonderful thing. Though he appreciates the practical benefits
of science like electricity, airplane and the vacuum cleaner, he has some
reservations about the progress of medicine.
A hundred year ago there were no bacilli (bacteria), no ptomaine
poisoning (food poisoning), no diphtheria (throat infection) and no
appendicitis. Rabies was little known.
Many diseases like psoriasis (skin disease) and parotitis (swell in
salivary gland) and trypanosomiasis (sleeping disease), have been discovered
and have become household names. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Growth
in the treatments:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A hundred years ago fever could be
cured by the letting of blood; even seventy years ago fever could be cured by
administration of sedative drugs; thirty years ago fever could be healed by the
means of low diet and application of ice and now they are absolutely of no use
now. For example, Rheumatism (painful
disorder of joints) in the ancient times being cured by carrying round potatoes
in the pockets of the patients as means of cure. Now they can carry absolutely
anything they like. Or, take the
treatment of epilepsy (fits), the first thing we should do to a patient is to
unfasten the collar buttons and let them breath, Now a days, many doctors consider to button
up collar and the patient choke as a mean of cure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modern
and Ancient Doctors:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
the olden days a man was turned out thoroughly equipped as a doctor after
putting in two winter sessions at college and spending his summers in running
logs for a sawmill. Some of the students
even turned sooner as doctors. Nowadays it takes anywhere from 5-8 years to
become a doctor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Varied
Diet charts given by a modern Doctor:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If
the patient enters the consulting room and says he have a bad pain, the doctor
would ask the patient to stand up and gives a heavy blow under the heart and
stomach and says there is a slight anesthesia of tympanum (loss of feeling in
the ear drum). The author criticizes the
modern day doctors saying that, if the patient suffers from headache the doctor
will examine the stomach. If the patient asks about the diet, the answer will
be given in two different ways and it depends on how the doctor is feeling
about his appetite, if he is hungry, he will ask the patient to eat
plenty. If he had a great lunch, the
doctor will advise the patient not to eat much, which will certainly affect
your health. If the patient enquires
about drinking, the doctor will respond in two ways, either to drink more or avoid
drinking. To create confidence in the
minds and hearts of the patients, the doctors prescribe some laboratory tests.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Thus
the author remarks that, though everyone is aware of this, entire people still
continue to run to the doctors in case of any slight physical problems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Sporting Spirit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> George
Orwell is a famous essayist and novelist.
His frank critical satire on communism in ‘Animal Farm’ and his vision
of future ‘Nineteen eighty-four’ are very interesting. In this essay ‘<i>The Sporting Spirit’ </i>Orwell looks at
sports from a different angle. Exchange of sports teams and athletic teams is
generally expected to bridge a friendly relationship between the countries
concerned. But Orwell warns that, unless the players have real sporting spirit
and ‘play the game’, the result of such will be bitterness rather than
friendliness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anglo-Soviet
Relationship:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author says he can speak very openly when many people cannot comment publicly
before the arrival of the Dynamos football team from Russia. The sports cause ill-will and the visit of
Dynamo football team would not improve the relationship between Britain and
Russia. The match played between these
two countries league team led to much bad feeling. The player fought with each other or the
crowd booed or it was free-for-all from the beginning. The controversy amongst the Russian team was
they said it is not the Arsenal League team, rather it comprises of all England
players. But the England claims that it was just a league team of Arsenal
football club. Overall it created a
bitter relationship between the two nations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author often believed that sports increases good will between the nations. He gives out an example as the 1936 Olympics
under Hitler’s rule that the above opinion was wrong. The international sporting contested lead to hatred
and bitterness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sports
are Competitive:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sports
which are practiced today are very competitive.
They do not play for fun. They
just play to win. Prestige issue plays a
vital role even in a school football or cricket matches. At the international level sports is frankly
a mimic warfare (small battle). More
than the behavior of players the attitude of the spectators are really
stunning. Orwell gives out illustration
from the Australian match being played against England in the year 1921 created
controversy regarding the body line bowling.
Football is even worse, whereas Boxing is the worst of all sport. The match played between a black and white
among the mixed audience will create the most disgusting moment in boxing
sport. Women spectators are more
horrible, so the army by its regulations does not permit women to watch the
contest. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Audience
from different countries:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Various
countries react differently for different sports. In England the obsession (fixation) with
sports is very bad. Countries like India
and Burma should have a strong cordon of police to keep the crowd away from
entering into the field during cricket and football matches. Supporters break through the security force
and disabled the goalkeeper of the opposite side at a crucial moment. People wanted to see only one side on top and
the other side to be humiliated and defeated badly. Serious sports have nothing to do with fair
play. It is just the war without
shooting. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modern
Sports:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Most
of the games played today were played in olden days too. But they played with different spirit. Dr. Arnold generally known as the founder of
Modern Public School looked games as a waste of time. Then cheaply in England and United States
games were turned into money yielding factors by attracting vast crowds and the
infection spread from country to country. Spirit of Nationalism aroused due to
competitive sporting events. The crowds
feel with a group of people and imagined that their victory or defeat affected
them and their nation. Games were played
in Rome and Byzantium as serious as they are played now, but they never mixed
sports with politics or group hatreds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author says that if one wants to worsen the world condition today is one can do
it by a series of football matches watched by a mixed audience. He does not mean that a sport is one of the
main causes of international rivalry.
Orwell does not want the visit of the Dynamos to be followed by the
visit of a British team to Russia and worsen the relationship more than ever by
encouraging young men to kick each other of shins (below knee) among the mixed
audience.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Portrait of a Lady<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Kushwant
Singh, journalist and writer is a prolific writer in English and has written on
Indian themes. His first novel was
‘Train to Pakistan’ written in 1956 which dealt with partition troubles. In this essay he speaks about his memories
regarding his grandmother. He thinks about
his past school and college days when his grandmother was with him. The
greatness of her grandmother was brought out in this essay in a very simple
manner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Description
of Grandmother:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> She
was old and wrinkled for the 20 years that Kushwant Singh had known her and she
had once been young and pretty. She even
had a husband that was hard to believe by him.
The grandfather’s portrait hung above the mantel piece in the drawing
room. She looked terribly old, short,
fat with a stoop (slightly bend). She had criss-cross of wrinkles running from
everywhere to everywhere on her face.
She hobbled (walking with an injured feet) around the house with one
hand resting on her hip to balance the stoop.
She was very religious often telling her beads and prayers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Good
Friends:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author and his grandmother were good friends who use to wake him up every
morning and got him ready for the school.
His parents left him under the loving care the grandmother and left to
the city to up bring their standards of living.
She bathed him, fetched him the wooden slate and fed him the stale
chapattis with little butter and sugar spread on it. They both went to school together, and the
school was a part of the temple. The
priest taught alphabets and prayers to the children who came to school, while
the grandmother would be in the temple reading the scriptures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kushwant
Singh left the Village:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When
his parents were comfortably settled in the city they took Kushwant Singh and
grandmother to their city house. He
joined the English school and travelled by motor bus. The author and the grandmother shared the
same room in the city. As years went on,
for some time the grandmother made him ready for his school and when he returns
back he use to tell about the lessons being taught in the school. She was unhappy about it, since there were no
teachings about prayer and God. Later he
joined the University and the relationship began to worsen up. She use to sit all alone at her spinning
wheel throughout the day and in the afternoons she would sit on the verandah
feeding the sparrows with bread crumbs which were very friendly with the old
lady.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Abroad
journey:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author decided to go abroad for further studies and he was sure that the
grandmother would be upset and he will be away from her for five years. She came to leave him at the railway station
and never showed any emotions of sadness.
Her lips moved in prayer, her fingers busy telling the beads. He was surprised when his grandmother kissed
his forehead before the journey could start and cherished it thinking that he
will be seeing her for the last time. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Final
moments of Grandmother:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When
he returned after his higher education she was at the station to receive the
author. She comforted him and chanted a
prayer. Later in the same evening, the
family members saw a sudden change in the behavior of the grandmother. She called women from the neighborhood,
started beating a drum and began to sing of the homecoming of the warrior. The next day she was ill and the doctor examined
and said she will be alright, but the grandmother said that the end has
come. She lay on bed telling her beads,
suddenly the rosary fell down and they knew she was dead.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
family members started preparing for her cremation. The author was amazed to see thousands of
sparrows gathered where the body had been kept.
Before cremating her, the author’s mother threw bread crumbs to the
sparrows but no one took notice of the bread.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Later,
they carried the grandmother’s corpse (dead body) to the cremation ground. All the sparrows flew away quietly. Next morning the sweeper swept the bread
crumbs into the dust bin. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: red; font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><b>6 One Act Plays</b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Dear Departed<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Character
List<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Abel
Merryweather (grandfather of the family)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mr.
Henry Slater (Husband of Amelia)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mrs.
Amelia (daughter of Abel)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Victoria
(daughter of Mr. & Mrs. Slater)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mr.
Ben Jordon (husband of Elizabeth)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mrs.
Elizabeth (daughter of Abel)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Jimmy
(son of Mr. & Mrs. Jordon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">ª</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Mrs.
John Shorrock (widow, owner of Ring ‘o’ Bells)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">William Stanley Houghton</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(22 February 1881–10
December 1913) was an English </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">playwright</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. He was a prominent member,
together with</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Monkhouse" title="Allan Monkhouse"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Allan Monkhouse</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Brighouse" title="Harold Brighouse"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Harold Brighouse</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, of a group known as the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_School_(writers)" title="Manchester School (writers)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Manchester School</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">of dramatists. His best
known play is</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindle_Wakes" title="Hindle Wakes"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hindle Wakes</span></a>. </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The play is a final portrayal of the
greed, jealousy and lack of sincerity of the daughters in the case of an old
father who was mistaken to be dead.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The grandfather looks dead to his daughter Mrs.
Slater. She and her husband sent a telegram to her sister Elizabeth and her
husband. Before her sister could come,
Mrs. Slater plans to loot whatever she wants of her father’s belongings. The
play opens up with Mrs. Slater who calls her daughter Victoria and scolds her for
playing when her grandfather is lying dead and she wants Victoria to change her
dress into black before her aunt and uncle could come. She asks why they are coming and her mother
replied that she has sent them a telegram about father’s death. Meanwhile, Henry enters with a parcel of
food. He asked her wife whether her
sister Elizabeth would come since two sister’s quarreled so badly last
time. Amelia said, she will surely come
to share her father’s property.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Amelia feels that, Henry can wear Abel’s new
slippers since her husband’s slipper have become old. But her husband says they
are not the right size. Amelia said the
slippers will stretch. She also wanted
to own her father’s new bureau. She
wanted Henry to help her in replacing the new bureau to their room and put her
old chest of drawers in its place. If
her sister Elizabeth knows she will ask for a hard bargain said Amelia. When
they both tried to replace the bureau Victoria asked her father Henry, are they
going to steal the bureau before aunt Elizabeth could come? Amelia brings clock too from Abel
merryweather’s room. She asks her child
Victoria to be quiet and she must not breathe a word about the clock and bureau
to her aunt. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">They heard a knock at the door while they were
bringing down the bureau. Mr. and Mrs. Slater guessed it to be Elizabeth and
her husband and asked Victoria not to open the door before they could signal
her to open. Later they received
Elizabeth and Ben. She asked Amelia
about the details of old man’s death.
Mrs. Slater says her father had been so happy that morning and
immediately after breakfast went to pay insurance premium, later he went to bed
saying he does not want dinner. Mrs.
Slater went to his room with a tray after dinner and he found the old man lying
cold and dead. Then they discuss about the
announcement in the newspaper obituary column, about the old man’s death. Elizabeth insists others to take down the
list of grandfather’s property. She also
says that her father had promised to give his gold watch to her son Jimmy after
his death. Amelia got shocked and
surprised. Victoria tells them that Abel
didn’t go to pay his premium; instead he went to Ring ‘o’ Bells along with his
friend. Mrs. Slater wanted Victoria to
bring the key bunch from grandfather’s room to check for the receipt in the
bureau.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">She rushes down from grandfather’s room saying the
grandfather is getting up. Everyone was
shocked. Then, a chuckling is heard
outside. It took some time for them to
be sure it is him or ghost. Abel asks
Amelia what has happened to his new slippers and he finds Henry wearing
it. She explains that she asked him to
wear them and stretch them for him.
Victoria was too happy to see her grandfather alive again and asked him
what has happened to him. Abel replied
that he had a slight headache and he is all right now. He suddenly looks at the bureau and clock and
shouts at Henry and Amelia for moving them to their room. They both stood speechless. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Now grandfather knew why everyone was wearing black
mourning dress. He suspected that, two
sisters have already started dividing things between them. He said that he is
going to destroy the will and make a new one on the following Monday. Later he said that he has got three duties to
be fulfilled on Monday. First one is to
meet the lawyer and change the will, secondly to pay the premium and finally,
to get married with Mrs. John Shorrock, the owner of Ring ‘o’ Bells at St.
Philip’s Church. He also said, his
property will go to the one who takes care of him. Since both the daughters have considered him
as a burden he is going to get married a widow who looks after him with
pleasure. Finally he thanked Amelia and
her husband Henry for bringing the bureau downstairs so that carrying it to the
Ring ‘o’ Bells (public house) would be easy and hoping them to see them all on
Monday at the church for his wedding. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pie
and the Tart<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gaultier: Cake shop owner<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Marion: Gaultier’s wife<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jean : Vagabonds<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pierre :
Vagabonds (beggar)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The scene is laid outside Gaultier’s
cake shop in Paris. Jean is found in a
dejected mood. Pierre is walking to and
fro blowing his fingers because of extreme cold. Pierre and jean both feel the cold. Jean is not bothered about the bad dress of
Pierre. He is concerned about his
hunger. He made no bone about to tell
Judge Gaston earlier when he was arrested for begging. Pierre agrees with Jean and tells him that he
does not know what hunger is while jean prays to the great saints to overcome
his while he begs that he has been starving for seven days and not three. Pierre knocks at the cake shop and says that
he had not food for a week. Gaultier the
owner turns him out. He slams the
door. The wife opens the door when Jean
invokes the names of St. Agatha, St. Nicholas and St. Crispin., she also turns
out the beggar stating that her husband has gone out. Jean is sorry. Gaultier comes out of the shop. Marion, his wife appears at the door.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gaultier’s Dinner with
Mayor<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Gaultier is to dine with the
mayor. He feels that it would be better
to take the eel pie with him. But on
second thought Gaultier feels that it is beneath his dignity to carry and eel
pie. Marion agrees with him. She is sure that her husband, Gaultier would
meet someone on the way. But Gaultier
feels that the person might prove to be cheating. He tells his wife that a messenger sent by
him would kiss her hand and the eel pie could be sent through him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jean’s trick<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Jean overhears Gaultier’s conversation with
his wife. The conversation now is
between Jean and Pierre, the vagabonds.
Jean asks Pierre to knock at the door of Gaultier and see his wife,
Marion. He should take her hand and kiss
it. She has to be told that her husband,
Gaultier has sent him to fetch the eel pie.
It will end his hunger. Pierre
disabuses the fear from jean that the husband of Marion, Gaultier would appear
in the process. Jean does as Pierre has instructed him. He gets the eel pie. Pierre hugs the eel pie as St. Ursula would
have her maidens. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Gaultier comes back because the
mayor has gone out. He has no other
option but to eat at home. But Marion,
the wife of Gaultier says that there is nothing at home. When Gaultier reminds her that the eel pie is
there, Marion replies that it has been given to his messenger a quarter of an
hour back. Gaultier points out that he
has never sent a messenger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quarrel between
Gaultier and Marion <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> There is a wordy warfare between Gaultier
and Marion. The hunger of Pierre is
satisfied. His brain begins to
function. The doctor, he remembers has
said that t food before digestion is bad.
Both praise Gaultier and his wife Marion for the excellent preparation
of the pie. Pierre remembers the cranberry tart, which he saw on the shelf and
he asks Jean to go and tell the lady that Mr. Gaultier want him to bring the
tart. Jean goes to Marion again not satisfied with the eel pie alone. He gives the impression that Gaultier, her
husband has sent him to her again to fetch the cranberry tart on the kitchen
shelf. Unfortunately Gaultier is
inside. He comes out and beats
jean. Jean throws the blame on his
friend, Pierre. Jean tells Pierre that
the lady would give the tart only to the same messenger who came for the
pie. Pierre goes thinking that Marion
would welcome him. Pierre explains the
truth. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Pierre tells the angry Gaultier that
he had take n the pie to the mayor’s house and he said that the mayor was
grateful for the pie and wanted Gaultier to come for dinner. The mayor had come back. Pierre somehow or other makes Gaultier part
with the tart under the pretext of running to the mayor. The boys enjoy the cranberry tart with great
religion. Thus the boys manage to dupe
the gullible Gaultier couple.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Refund<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Percival Wilde</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(</span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">New York City</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, 1 March 1887 – 19
September 1953) was an American</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author" title="Author"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">author</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">playwright</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">who wrote text books on the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_arts" title="Theater arts"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">theater arts</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, novels and numerous</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_stories" title="Short stories"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">short stories</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-act_play" title="One-act play"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">one-act plays</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. This story was adapted from Fritz Karinthy, a
well know short story writer who wrote this one act play in the year 1938.</span></span><span class="MsoLineNumber"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
This is the story of a</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> former student who demands that his tuition should be refunded
because he feels his education was worthless, but loses his bid when he is
tricked by the mathematics master. He
proved that teachers are cleverer than the main character in the play named
Wasserkopf.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wasserkopf’s Education</span></b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> He wants the refund of his tuition fees
which were paid for education eighteen years ago because he didn’t get his
money worth. This idea was given to him
by his Lederer while he was walking along the street after being fired from the
job. When the Lederer spoke about the
speculation of Foreign exchange, Wasserkopf asked, what Foreign Exchange is? He
replied according to the paper, Hungarian money is down seventy points. Wasserkopf replied, I don’t understand.
Lederer said, go to school and get your tuition fees back.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Meeting with the Principal:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> He hurried to school to get back his
tuition fees after meeting Lederer. He
met the Principal and asked him to refund his tuition fee since he was not able
to do anything and could not keep a job because he was taught badly. Principal was shocked. He further says that financially he is broken
and he wants to get foreign exchange.
The Principal arranges for an urgent meeting with all his teaching
staff’s about Wasserkopf’s re-examination.
The outcome of their meeting is to checkmate him by sticking together
and appreciate his answers. Mathematics
teacher tells the other members of staff, that they should prevent him from
failing. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Re-examination:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Principal asked the servant to call
Wasserkopf for a re-examination. When
all the staff members greeted him, he called the staff members as
‘Loafers’. The Mathematics teacher says
that the greeting shows that he approves the way which teachers and pupils are
treated on equal foots in the school.
‘Excellent’ for manner without any examinations said the staff members.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Questions from the staff’s:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The History master asked him how long the
thirty years war last? He answered that the war lasted for Seven meters. History master accepts it as a brilliant
answer based on theories of Einstein and others. The war took place during half of each day,
three hours a day to eat, hours given up to noon day, so totally seven
years. The actual time spent in fighting
was seven years and it has been by Einsteinian equivalence of seven meters.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Physics Master asked Wasserkopf
whether clocks in church become smaller if one walks away from it because of
optical illusion. He called The Physics
master as an ass. The master says that
the answer is correct because ass does not have any illusion of vision.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Geography Master asked Wasserkopf for
the name of a city which has the same name as the capital of German Providence
of Burnswick. He replied as ‘Same’. Master said it is the correct answer. There was a legend that once as the emperor
Barbarossa was riding in the city, he met a young peasant (farmer) girl, who
was munching a bun mouthful. He called
out her God Bless you, she answered same to you sir, and Emperor laughed and
said Ho, Ho! So the city is ‘Same’.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Mathematics master said he will ask two
questions to him, one will be difficult and the other is too easy. He asked about the speed of light by x,
distance of star Sirius from sun y, nine-sided regular polyhedron whose surface
coincides with hip-pocket of a state railway.
Everyone was shocked. The answer came from Wasserkopf was twenty nine
liters. But the master said it a wrong
one and the answer is twenty eight liters. While the other teachers are not
happy, Wasserkopf now demands for his tuition fees. Now, the teacher asked him, how much should
we repay you? He replied as 6450 crowns 50 hellers exactly. Mathematics teacher now declares him as a
mathematical genius and the move defeats Wasserkopf.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Principal presented the results of the
examination and he has passed with distinction.
Thus, the teachers get rid of Wasserkopf without the refund.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Boy Comes Home<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">‘The Boy Comes Home’ is a light comedy. The main character Philip
has been terminated from the army after a period of four years. He has learnt
the tactics which are essential to lead a successful life. He knows how to use
different policies. He compels others to accomplish his wishes. According to
the will of his deceased father he can have his money at the age of twenty five
and by that time uncle James will be this guardian. The play is full of amusing
and witty situations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Philip returns back from the war after a long and tough period. He
is now in the mood of leisure. He gets up late and goes to the morning room for
breakfast at ten o’clock. He finds nothing on the table and Orders Mary - the
parlour maid to serve him with eggs and coffee. She tells him that Mrs. Higgins
does not like irregularity. She is very punctual and according to Master’s rule
she prepares breakfast at eight o’clock. Mary is afraid that Mrs. Higgins will
annoy at her if she goes to her for breakfast. In the meantime, Aunt Emily
enters and discusses some trivial matter. A few moments later Mrs. Higgins
enters awfully Philip demands for breakfast. She replies firmly that breakfast
is available only at eight o’clock. She refuses to obey him and talks in
arrogant manner. She demands to give her one month notice. Having seen the
haughtiness (arrogance) of Mrs. Higgins, Philip uses the strategy and at once
orders her to leave the job and offers cheque of her wages. She does not expect
such behavior of Philip; it is astounding to her. She takes her order and goes
away.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Then
uncle James-enters and asks about Philip. Aunt Emily tells that he is taking
his breakfast. Uncle James dislikes his slackness. He tells that he should be
very punctual. He wants to discuss his future planning. He wants him to work in
his office. Aunt -Emily tries to convince him that Philip is no more a boy but
a man. She says that Philip will not follow his instructions Uncle James tells
that he knows his Weak point, and will not give him money. Aunt Emily informs
Philip that his uncle is waiting for him. Philip answers carelessly that his
uncle can come to him to meet. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">However Philip goes to his uncle. Uncle James rebukes him for his
smoking. Uncle James advises him to learn Civility and respect for elders. He
tries to impress him with his experience and awful personality. He proposes him
to join into his business. But Philip wants to be an architect. They wrangle
(quarrel) with each other. Uncle James threat him that he can get the payment
of that amount what is for Philip, at the attainment of age of twenty five
years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On this Philip takes out His revolver. Uncle James terrifies to see
the revolver in Philip’s hand. Philip said he will not hesitate to kill him,
because he has already killed twenty men. Uncle James tries to dodge Philip
with his oily tongue but all in vain. Philip becomes harsh. He behaves with his
uncle severely. Uncle James becomes soft and yields the palm. Philip succeeds
in his scheme. When he sees that Uncle James is completely in his control, he
agrees to work in his uncle’s office. Uncle James too becomes friendly to
him. We see Philip’s shows his sagacity
on two different occasions. He compels his opponent to bow<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>The
Discovery</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Hermand
Ould is a living dramatist. His plays
are often based upon historical incidents surrounding the all time famous
celebrities like Columbus, David Livingston and Joan of Arc. His plays concentrate on lives of great men,
their adventures and achievement in their lifetime. He takes real life
situation and represents very interestingly to our imagination. ‘The Discovery’
describes Columbus as a man of Destiny and brings out his get great courage and
fortitude at the hour of his trial. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
background of the play is a ship called ‘Santa Maria’ wherein it was driven by
the sailors who were governed by a Captain named Columbus in a venture of
discovering a new land. The play opens
with sailors on board; Juan (sailor) was kneeling and adjusting the ropes that
support the ship for sail. Diego Garcia
another seaman laughs and talks ill (bad things) about the captain. Juan now
appreciates the views of Diego and says Columbus is an unfortunate captain. 40
seamen were working under Columbus and they were nudging and nagging on the
captain to return home. The seamen sing
and Juan points out that the Captain will get angry. Columbus comes to the spot
when the two (Pedro and Diego) talk about mutiny (fight against authority). Columbus is a tall man who around 46 years of
age and easily irritable (angry). He
suspects the conversation that takes place between Pedro and Diego. Later Pepe (page boy) appears from the hatch.
Columbus prays for good wind. Wind is
God for him. Pedro says that all the seamen think only about their children,
wife, friends, and sweet hearts and they urge to return back home. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Pedro
points out to Columbus that the seaman does not have the vision to discover a
new land. Columbus confesses that he is an impatient person and gets anger very
easily. Pedro speaks on behalf of his
fellow sailors stating that they were patiently waiting in the hope to discover
Spain. But we are yet to discover
anything and the ill luck follows us. Suddenly
Pepe runs up to the captain and says that he hates all the seamen, since they
drink and sing ill about the captain.
Pedro is now asked to stop the noise of singing but the seamen never
listened. This made Columbus more
restless and angry. Now, Francisco
appears and tells Columbus that his fellow sailors are very angry on the
captain and warns him that the anger of the sailors is dangerous and harmful to
Columbus. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Pedro
was now asked by the captain to arrange for a meeting with the crew in the
ship. In the meeting the captain view
was opposed by Francisco (head of the seamen) in discovering a new land saying
that there is a limit for duty and the sailors are home sick and they wanted to
meet their beloveds and children. Again
the seamen begins to sing which kindles the anger of the captain and calls the
sound as the ‘snarling (growling or shouting) of angry beast’. Francisco takes
up a big stick and says that the discipline is a thing of the past. Columbus
now orders to meet Guillermo Ires (seamen) who makes the roar of songs. He tries to stop them and warns them that
they will spend the rest of the night in prison. He wants Guillermo to get down. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Guillermo
tells Columbus that they have waited long and he tried to test the patience too
much and he wants the ship ‘Santa Maria’ to go back to Spain. Captain pays high respect to Guillermo as a
sailor but sometimes he couldn’t resist the tongue (speech) of Guillermo.
Columbus tries to prove other sailors that he is an authoritative person and
the sailors began to rebel again him. Pepe now stands between the rebellious
sailors and the captain. Pepe is the
only loyal person in Columbus discovery.
Pedro tells Columbus that his loyalty has never been in question. Juan says he and other are simple men. Guillermo promises to wait till the next
day. Francisco proves that he is not on
the side of Columbus. Finally the next
day the land is sighted (discovered).
There is happiness all around.
Finally Columbus discovered the new land and Pepe (who is the only loyal
person amongst all sailors).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>The
Shirt</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This
is a satirical (comedy) play written by Francis Dillon who produced many plays
for B.B.C. The play highlights on the
emptiness of modern life, where we have lost our joy and the capacity to live
happily which was brought out in the most entertaining fashion in this play
through the life of the King who suffers from melancholy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Summary:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
story takes place in King’s court where all the noble men and commoners have
assembled. Queen appears and asks the
nobles to sit. The chancellor says that
the whole kingdom shares the Queen’s sorrow since the disease called melancholy
(sadness) has overtaken the King drastically and the Queen want the remedy to
cure the disease. She asked the court physician (doctor) to speak, and he says
that the King is affected by Melancholy humor and this can be cured by
developing humor and laughter. The
second Physician said he wants to examine the King of the past life
events. Now the King’s jester arrives to
entertain the king. Chancellor finds
fault with the commoner Buckram who interrupted in the court. Later the Queen
is stunned to see Royal Hunt Master appears at the court on horseback. The master of Royal Hunter says that if the
King comes along with them to hunt the wild beasts in the forest with this
melancholy state he will be easily killed.
Queen wants the King to be tempted any way or the other to come out of
the disease. She invites the court poet
to sing in praise of the King in order to bring him out from sadness since the
poet was one of the most lovable poets of all time. The poet tries to cure the
king’s troubled mind saying about Unicorns which should be hunted by the
king. Buckram (common man) interrupts
and says that he will offer fifty thousand gold dinars for a Unicorn dead or
alive. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Buckram
says that the courts jesters (entertainers) were outdated. Chancellor shouts at the common man and asks
him not to speak in the court since he is a common man and not a noble person
to speak in the court. Buckram promises
the Queen that he will bring entertainers and physicians from the neighboring
states to entertain the king to cure his sadness. Few days later the King’s court hall is
filled up with Buckram’s entertainers.
Buckram introduces Crik Busby whose golden voice has conquered many
hearts. King shouts at the Crik Busby
and orders the chancellor to kill him for the moaning voice. Chancellor silences the King saying that the
person is not an enemy and he is from a friendly state. Later Crik Busby was declared free. Followed him was Duffy and Huffy a quick fire
standup comedians, Swing Swatters and Side splitting Sidney but everyone failed
to impress the king. The chancellor
orders the common man Buckram to be seized and killed. Buckram’s physician enters and examines the
King. He said that the King fears death
and old age and the melancholy disease can be cured by wearing the shirt of a
completely happy man for 7 days. The
king replies that every man in the kingdom is happy except him. The Chancellor promised the King that he will
bring the happiest man and leaves the court.
He asked the secretary to arrange for a selection committee to find the
happy man. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Queen
wants to know how many have screened and the Chancellor replies that he does
not know the exact figure they have examined to find the happiest man. The president replied that the selection
committee is engaged in defining word ‘happiness’. Now the Queen is desired to see the screened
(selected) list. She starts with the
Merchant Princess, followed by other Merchants and Rich men in and around the
kingdom. Everyone had some problem or
the other to claim that they are not happy saying indigestion, problem with
daughters, son, toothless, hairless, childless, landless, and friendless. The
Queen comes to the conclusion that no rich man is happy. The Queen journeyed far over the country and
nothing was heard of her for long about the happiest man. The selection committee continued the search,
and finally deriving the definition for ‘happiness’. Brains party: happiness lies in the state of
mind, Brawns party: happiness is being healthy and fit. These were the definition derived by the
committee.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Suddenly
there was a fight between the people who are armed and those who are not. It took place between the Brain party and the
Brawn party. By that time the Queen came across a beggar and she asked him
whether his is a rich beggar. He said he
sings for gold, but the gold gets him misery and he has thrown it away. Singing
is the hobby of the beggar and he never worries about anything in the world and
feel that he is very happy. Queen decided to take him to the court. The chancellor feels the same as the Queen
that the beggar is the happiest man in the whole kingdom. The beggar stands before the King and the
king asks him to give his shirt to cure his melancholy. The beggar says he cannot because he doesn’t
have a shirt to wear since he is a poor beggar.
Finally the King laughs ‘you have no shirt’, roaring with laughter, the
whole court joined him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: red; font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">Fiction : Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde</span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dr.
Jekyll and Mr. Hyde</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Robert Louis Stevenson<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction
about the author:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Robert
Louis Stevenson, was a Scottish novelist, essayist and poet, was born in
Edinburgh in 1850. His most well known books include<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island"><span style="color: black;">Treasure Island</span></a></i>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapped_(novel)" title="Kidnapped (novel)"><span style="color: black;">Kidnapped</span></a></i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and
the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde" title="Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde"><span style="color: black;">Strange
Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde</span></a></i>.
Stevenson has been greatly admired by many authors, including<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges"><span style="color: black;">Jorge Luis Borges</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway"><span style="color: black;">Ernest Hemingway</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling"><span style="color: black;">and Rudyard Kipling</span></a>. Although he never enjoyed good health,
he travelled widely, finally making his home in the tropical island of Samoa,
where he died in 1894.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main
Characters:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dr.
Henry Jekyll</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> – A respected doctor and friend of Lanyon, a fellow
physician, and Utterson.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Edward Hyde</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - a violent and
cruel man and everyone who sees him describes him as ugly<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Gabriel John Utterson</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - A prominent and
upstanding lawyer, well respected in the London community<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dr. Hastie Lanyon</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - A reputable
London doctor, friend of Dr. Jekyll<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Poole</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - Jekyll butler.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Enfield</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - A distant
cousin and lifelong friend of Mr. Utterson<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr. Guest</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> -</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Utterson’s clerk</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sir Danvers Carew</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> - A well-liked
old nobleman, Member of Parliament, and a client of Utterson.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Plot
Overview<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On their weekly walk, an eminently
sensible, trustworthy lawyer named Mr. Utterson listens as his friend Enfield
tells a gruesome tale of assault. The tale describes a sinister figure named
Mr. Hyde who tramples a young girl, disappears into a door on the street, and
reemerges to pay off her relatives with a check signed by a respectable gentleman.
Since both Utterson and Enfield disapprove of gossip, they agree to speak no
further of the matter. It happens, however, that one of Utterson’s clients and
close friends, Dr. Jekyll, has written a will transferring all of his property
to this same Mr. Hyde. Soon, Utterson begins having dreams in which a faceless
figure stalks through a nightmarish version of London.<a href="http://oascentral.sparknotes.com/RealMedia/ads/click_lx.ads/www.sparknotes.com/lit/jekyll/620126904/Middle/default/empty.gif/646347526d6b784a6d6b5941414a5846;zip=IN:400000?x" target="_top"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Puzzled, the lawyer visits Jekyll
and their mutual friend Dr. Lanyon to try to learn more. Lanyon reports that he
no longer sees much of Jekyll, since they had a dispute over the course of
Jekyll’s research, which Lanyon calls “unscientific balderdash.” Curious,
Utterson stakes out a building that Hyde visits—which, it turns out, is a
laboratory attached to the back of Jekyll’s home. Encountering Hyde, Utterson
is amazed by how undefinably ugly the man seems, as if deformed, though
Utterson cannot say exactly how. Much to Utterson’s surprise, Hyde willingly
offers Utterson his address. Jekyll tells Utterson not to concern himself with
the matter of Hyde.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A year passes uneventfully. Then,
one night, a servant girl witnesses Hyde brutally beat to death an old man
named Sir Danvers Carew, a member of Parliament and a client of Utterson. The
police contact Utterson, and Utterson suspects Hyde as the murderer. He leads
the officers to Hyde’s apartment, feeling a sense of foreboding amid the eerie
weather—the morning is dark and wreathed in fog. When they arrive at the
apartment, the murderer has vanished, and police searches prove futile. Shortly
thereafter, Utterson again visits Jekyll, who now claims to have ended all
relations with Hyde; he shows Utterson a note, allegedly written to Jekyll by
Hyde, apologizing for the trouble he has caused him and saying goodbye. That
night, however, Utterson’s clerk points out that Hyde’s handwriting bears a
remarkable similarity to Jekyll’s own.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">For a few months, Jekyll acts
especially friendly and sociable, as if a weight has been lifted from his shoulders.
But then Jekyll suddenly begins to refuse visitors, and Lanyon dies from some
kind of shock he received in connection with Jekyll. Before dying, however,
Lanyon gives Utterson a letter, with instructions that he not open it until
after Jekyll’s death. Meanwhile, Utterson goes out walking with Enfield, and
they see Jekyll at a window of his laboratory; the three men begin to converse,
but a look of horror comes over Jekyll’s face, and he slams the window and
disappears. Soon afterward, Jekyll’s butler, Mr. Poole, visits Utterson in a
state of desperation: Jekyll has secluded himself in his laboratory for several
weeks, and now the voice that comes from the room sounds nothing like the
doctor’s. Utterson and Poole travel to Jekyll’s house through empty, windswept,
sinister streets; once there, they find the servants huddled together in fear.
After arguing for a time, the two of them resolve to break into Jekyll’s
laboratory. Inside, they find the body of Hyde, wearing Jekyll’s clothes and
apparently dead by suicide—and a letter from Jekyll to Utterson promising to
explain everything.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Utterson takes the document home,
where first he reads Lanyon’s letter; it reveals that Lanyon’s deterioration
and eventual death were caused by the shock of seeing Mr. Hyde take a potion
and metamorphose into Dr. Jekyll. The second letter constitutes a testament by
Jekyll. It explains how Jekyll, seeking to separate his good side from his
darker impulses, discovered a way to transform himself periodically into a
deformed monster free of conscience—Mr. Hyde. At first, Jekyll reports, he
delighted in becoming Hyde and rejoiced in the moral freedom that the creature
possessed. Eventually, however, he found that he was turning into Hyde
involuntarily in his sleep, even without taking the potion. At this point,
Jekyll resolved to cease becoming Hyde. One night, however, the urge gripped
him too strongly, and after the transformation he immediately rushed out and
violently killed Sir Danvers Carew. Horrified, Jekyll tried more adamantly to
stop the transformations, and for a time he proved successful; one day,
however, while sitting in a park, he suddenly turned into Hyde, the first time
that an involuntary metamorphosis had happened while he was awake.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The letter continues describing
Jekyll’s cry for help. Far from his laboratory and hunted by the police as a
murderer, Hyde needed Lanyon’s help to get his potions and become Jekyll
again—but when he undertook the transformation in Lanyon’s presence, the shock
of the sight instigated Lanyon’s deterioration and death. Meanwhile, Jekyll
returned to his home, only to find himself ever more helpless and trapped as
the transformations increased in frequency and necessitated even larger doses
of potion in order to reverse themselves. It was the onset of one of these
spontaneous metamorphoses that caused Jekyll to slam his laboratory window shut
in the middle of his conversation with Enfield and Utterson. Eventually, the
potion began to run out, and Jekyll was unable to find a key ingredient to make
more. His ability to change back from Hyde into Jekyll slowly vanished. Jekyll
writes that even as he composes his letter he knows that he will soon become
Hyde permanently, and he wonders if Hyde will face execution for his crimes or
choose to kill himself. Jekyll notes that, in any case, the end of his letter
marks the end of the life of Dr. Jekyll. With these words, both the document
and the novel come to a close.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">NIGHT IN THE CITY<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Mr. Richard Enfield was a large and active
young man who had dined in down that night, and then gone on to dance at the
Prescott house in Hampstead. By tow
clock in the morning he chose to walk back to his own room in the city. He went on cheerful enough, swinging his
stick and humming the tune of the moment. Later his mood changed and began to
feel the need for a company, for the sound of a human voice. The street was empty as a church. All at once he saw two figures one was a
little man walking in good pace, and the other was that of a girl of some ten
or eleven years who was running hard. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">He witnessed a shrunken, misshapen man crash into and
tramples a young girl. She gave a loud
scream. Enfield collared the man before he could get away, and then brought him
back to the girl, around whom an angry crowd had gathered. The captured man
appeared so overwhelmingly ugly that the crowd immediately despised him.
United, the crowd threatened to ruin the ugly man’s good name unless he did
something to make amends; the man, seeing himself trapped, bought them off with
one hundred pounds, which he obtained upon entering the neglected building
through its only door. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">THE SIGNATURE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The child’s father later called the
doctor for help. His anger over the
strange man was forgotten, and his thoughts were on his child. He led the doctor for a quick examination. He looked at the strange ugly guy and said
“this is a bad business” and the child is not seriously but she had a shock, a
very bad shock.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Now, the strange ugly man (Mr. Hyde) turned angry and shouts, ‘the whole
thing was an accident’. Later he said
that he would be willing to settle the matter without the reference to the
police by expressing his sorrow for what has happened in the form of a gift of
money to this poor girl’s family. Few
people applauded that. He was asked to
pay a sum of 100 pounds. The strange men
replied he have neither cash nor cheque-book with him. Enfield along with Mr. Hyde and child’s
father walked almost an hour, when Mr. Hyde turned into a quiet side street in
a busy quarter of London.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
The wall was dirty and the door had neither bell nor knocker, was
stained and unpainted and looked as if it was not opened for many years. Mr. Hyde stood near the door and asked them
to wait. Strangely enough, the check bore the name of a very reputable man;
furthermore, and in spite of Enfield’s suspicions, it proved to be legitimate
and not a forgery. Enfield hypothesizes that the ugly culprit had somehow
blackmailed the man whose name appeared on the check. Spurning gossip, however,
Enfield refuses to reveal that name. Mr.
Hyde promised that he will come along with them to Coutts Bank and get them the
money which they asked for. Mr. Hyde
shown no sign of pity for the terrible thing that he had done.</span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">BLACKMAIL HOUSE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Mr. Utterson is a wealthy, well-respected London lawyer, a reserved and
perhaps even boring man who nevertheless inspires a strange fondness in
those who know him. Despite his eminent respectability, he never abandons a
friend whose reputation has been sullied or ruined. Utterson nurtures a close friendship with Mr.
Enfield, his distant relative and likewise a respectable London gentleman. The
two seem to have little in common, and when they take their weekly walk
together they often go for quite a distance without saying anything to one
another; nevertheless, they look forward to these strolls as one of the high
points of the week. One day Utterson and Enfield are taking their regular
Sunday stroll and walking down a particularly prosperous-looking street. They
come upon a neglected building, which seems out of place in the neighborhood,
and Enfield relates a story in connection with it. He talks about an ugly
strange man who trampled a small child and later he solved the problem by
providing us with a cheque for 100 pounds which bored the signature of a
reputable gentleman in London. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Utterson then asks several pointed questions confirming the details of
the incident. Enfield tries to describe the nature of the mysterious man’s
ugliness but cannot express it, stating,”I never saw a man I so disliked, and
yet I scarce know why.” He divulges that the culprit’s name was Hyde, and, at
this point, Utterson declares that he knows the man, and notes that he can now
guess the name on the check. But, as the men have just been discussing the
virtue of minding one’s own business, they promptly agree never to discuss the
matter again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">SEARCH FOR MR. HYDE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Utterson,
prompted by his conversation with Enfield, goes home to study a will that he
drew up for his close friend Dr. Jekyll. It states that in the event of the
death or disappearance of Jekyll, all of his property should be given over
immediately to a Mr. Edward Hyde. This strange will had long troubled Utterson,
but now that he has heard something of Hyde’s behavior, he becomes more upset
and feels convinced that Hyde has some peculiar power over Jekyll. Seeking to
unravel the mystery, he pays a visit to Dr. Lanyon, a friend of Jekyll’s. But
Lanyon has never heard of Hyde and has fallen out of communication with Jekyll
as a result of a professional dispute. Lanyon refers to Jekyll’s most recent
line of research as “unscientific balderdash.”<a href="http://oascentral.sparknotes.com/RealMedia/ads/click_lx.ads/www.sparknotes.com/lit/jekyll/1724082301/,Middle,Middle2%21Middle/default/empty.gif/646347526d6b784a6d6b5941414a5846;zip=IN:400000?x" target="_top"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="" style='width:.75pt;height:.75pt'
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o:href="http://imagec10.247realmedia.com/RealMedia/ads/Creatives/default/empty.gif"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="1" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/STELLJ~1/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="1" /><!--[endif]--></span></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Later
that night, Utterson is haunted by nightmares in which a faceless man runs down
a small child and in which the same terrifying, faceless figure stands beside
Jekyll’s bed and commands him to rise. Soon, Utterson begins to spend time
around the run-down building where Enfield saw Hyde enter, in the hopes of
catching a glimpse of Hyde. Hyde, a small young man, finally appears, and
Utterson approaches him. Utterson introduces himself as a friend of Henry
Jekyll. Hyde, keeping his head down, returns his greetings. He asks Hyde to
show him his face, so that he will know him if he sees him again; Hyde
complies, and, like Enfield before him, Utterson feels appalled and horrified
yet cannot pinpoint exactly what makes Hyde so ugly. Hyde then offers Utterson
his address, which the lawyer interprets as a sign that Hyde eagerly
anticipates the death of Jekyll and the execution of his will.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">DR. JEKYLL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
After
this encounter, Utterson pays a visit to Jekyll. At this point, we learn what
Utterson himself has known all along: namely, that the run-down building that
Hyde frequents is actually a laboratory attached to Jekyll’s well-kept
townhouse, which faces outward on a parallel street. Utterson is admitted into
Jekyll’s home by Jekyll’s butler, Mr. Poole, but Jekyll is not at home. Poole
tells Utterson that Hyde has a key to the laboratory and that all the servants
have orders to obey Hyde. The lawyer heads home, worrying about his friend. He
assumes Hyde is blackmailing Jekyll, perhaps for some wrongdoings that Jekyll
committed in his youth.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Two
weeks later, Jekyll throws a well-attended dinner party. Utterson stays late so
that the two men can speak privately. Utterson mentions the will, and Jekyll
begins to make a joke about it, but he turns pale when Utterson tells him that
he has been “learning something of young Hyde.” Jekyll explains that the
situation with Hyde is exceptional and cannot be solved by talking. He also
insists that “the moment I choose, I can be rid of Mr. Hyde.” But Jekyll
emphasizes the great interest he currently takes in Hyde and his desire to
continue to provide for him. He makes Utterson promise that he will carry out
his will and testament.</div>
<h4 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Carew Murder Case<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Approximately
one year later, the scene opens on a maid who, sitting at her window in the wee
hours of the morning, witnesses a murder take place in the street below. She
sees a small, evil-looking man, whom she recognizes as Mr. Hyde, encounter a
polite, aged gentleman; when the gentleman offers Hyde a greeting, Hyde
suddenly turns on him with a stick, beating him to death. The police find a
letter addressed to Utterson on the dead body, and they consequently summon the
lawyer. He identifies the body as Sir Danvers Carew, a popular Member of
Parliament and one of his clients.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Utterson
still has Hyde’s address, and he accompanies the police to a set of rooms
located in a poor, evil-looking part of town. Utterson reflects on how odd it
is that a man who lives in such squalor is the heir to Henry Jekyll’s fortune.
Hyde’s villainous-looking landlady lets the men in, but the suspected murderer
is not at home. The police find the murder weapon and the burned remains of
Hyde’s checkbook. Upon a subsequent visit to the bank, the police inspector
learns that Hyde still has an account there. The officer assumes that he need
only wait for Hyde to go and withdraw money. In the days and weeks that follow,
however, no sign of Hyde turns up; he has no family, no friends, and those who
have seen him are unable to give accurate descriptions, differ on details, and
agree only on the evil aspect of his appearance.</div>
<h4 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Letter<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Utterson
calls on Jekyll, whom he finds in his laboratory looking deathly ill. Jekyll
feverishly claims that Hyde has left and that their relationship has ended. He
also assures Utterson that the police shall never find the man. Jekyll then
shows Utterson a letter and asks him what he should do with it, since he fears
it could damage his reputation if he turns it over to the police. The letter is
from Hyde, assuring Jekyll that he has means of escape, that Jekyll should not
worry about him, and that he deems himself unworthy of Jekyll’s great
generosity. Utterson asks if Hyde dictated the terms of Jekyll’s
will—especially its insistence that Hyde inherit in the event of Jekyll’s
-“disappearance.” Jekyll replies in the affirmative, and Utterson tells his
friend that Hyde probably meant to murder him and that he has had a near
escape. He takes the letter and departs.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
On his
way out, Utterson runs into Poole, the butler, and asks him to describe the man
who delivered the letter; Poole, taken aback, claims to have no knowledge of
any letters being delivered other than the usual mail. That night, over drinks,
Utterson consults his trusted clerk, Mr. Guest, who is an expert on
handwriting. Guest compares Hyde’s letter with some of Jekyll’s own writing and
suggests that the same hand inscribed both; Hyde’s script merely leans in the
opposite direction, as if for the purpose of concealment. Utterson reacts with
alarm at the thought that Jekyll would forge a letter for a murderer.</div>
<h4 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter 8: The Terror
of Dr. Lanyon<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
As time
passes, with no sign of Hyde’s reappearance, Jekyll becomes healthier-looking
and more sociable, devoting himself to charity. To Utterson, it appears that
the removal of Hyde’s evil influence has had a tremendously positive effect on
Jekyll. After two months of this placid lifestyle, Jekyll holds a dinner party,
which both Utterson and Lanyon attend, and the three talk together as old
friends. But a few days later, when Utterson calls on Jekyll, Poole reports
that his master is receiving no visitors.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
This
scenario repeats itself for a week, so Utterson goes to visit Lanyon, hoping to
learn why Jekyll has refused any company. He finds Lanyon in very poor health,
pale and sickly, with a frightened look in his eyes. Lanyon explains that he
has had a great shock and expects to die in a few weeks. “[L]ife has been
pleasant,” he says. “I liked it; yes, sir, I used to like it.” Then he adds, “I
sometimes think if we knew all, we should be gladder to get away.” When
Utterson mentions that Jekyll also seems ill, Lanyon violently demands that
they talk of anything but Jekyll. He promises that after his death, Utterson
may learn the truth about everything, but for now he will not discuss it.
Afterward, at home, Utterson writes to Jekyll, talking about being turned away
from Jekyll’s house and inquiring as to what caused the break between him and
Lanyon. Soon Jekyll’s written reply arrives, explaining that while he still
cares for Lanyon, he understands why the doctor says they must not meet. As for
Jekyll himself, he pledges his continued affection for Utterson but adds that
from now on he will be maintaining a strict seclusion, seeing no one. He says
that he is suffering a punishment that he cannot name.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Lanyon
dies a few weeks later, fulfilling his prophecy. After the funeral, Utterson
takes from his safe a letter that Lanyon meant for him to read after he died.
Inside, Utterson finds only another envelope, marked to remain sealed until
Jekyll also has died. Out of professional principle, Utterson overcomes his
curiosity and puts the envelope away for safekeeping. As weeks pass, he calls
on Jekyll less and less frequently, and the butler continues to refuse him
entry.</div>
<h4 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter 9: The face at
the Window<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
The
following Sunday, Utterson and Enfield are taking their regular stroll. Passing
the door where Enfield once saw Hyde enter to retrieve Jekyll’s check, Enfield
remarks on the murder case. He notes that the story that began with the
trampling has reached an end, as London will never again see Mr. Hyde. Enfield
mentions that in the intervening weeks he has learned that the run-down
laboratory they pass is physically connected to Jekyll’s house, and they both
stop to peer into the house’s windows, with Utterson noting his concern for
Jekyll’s health. To their surprise, the two men find Jekyll at the window,
enjoying the fresh air. Jekyll complains that he feels “very low,” and Utterson
suggests that he join them for a walk, to help his circulation. Jekyll refuses,
saying that he cannot go out. Then, just as they resume polite conversation, a
look of terror seizes his face, and he quickly shuts the window and vanishes.
Utterson and Enfield depart in shocked silence.</div>
<h3 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter 10: The Last Night<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Jekyll’s
butler Poole visits Utterson one night after dinner. Deeply agitated, he says
only that he believes there has been some “foul play” regarding Dr. Jekyll; he
quickly brings Utterson to his master’s residence. The night is dark and windy,
and the streets are deserted, giving Utterson a premonition of disaster. When
he reaches Jekyll’s house, he finds the servants gathered fearfully in the main
hall. Poole brings Utterson to the door of Jekyll’s laboratory and calls
inside, saying that Utterson has come for a visit. A strange voice responds,
sounding nothing like that of Jekyll; the owner of the voice tells Poole that
he can receive no visitors.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Poole
and Utterson retreat to the kitchen, where Poole insists that the voice they
heard emanating from the laboratory does not belong to his master. Utterson
wonders why the murderer would remain in the laboratory if he had just killed
Jekyll and not simply flee. Poole describes how the mystery voice has sent him
on constant errands to chemists; the man in the laboratory seems desperate for
some ingredient that no drugstore in London sells. Utterson, still hopeful,
asks whether the notes Poole has received are in the doctor’s hand, but Poole
then reveals that he has seen the person inside the laboratory, when he came out
briefly to search for something, and that the man looked nothing like Jekyll.
Utterson suggests that Jekyll may have some disease that changes his voice and
deforms his features, making them unrecognizable, but Poole declares that the
person he saw was smaller than his master—and looked, in fact, like none other
than Mr. Hyde.</div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">
<b>Chapter 11: The disappearance<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Hearing
Poole’s words, Utterson resolves that he and Poole should break into the
laboratory. He sends two servants around the block the laboratory’s other door,
the one that Enfield sees Hyde using at the beginning of the novel. Then, armed
with a fireplace poker and an axe, Utterson and Poole return to the inner door.
Utterson calls inside, demanding admittance. The voice begs for Utterson to have
mercy and to leave him alone. The lawyer, however, recognizes the voice as
Hyde’s and orders Poole to smash down the door.</div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
Once
inside, the men find Hyde’s body lying on the floor, a crushed vial in his
hand. He appears to have poisoned himself. Utterson notes that Hyde is wearing
a suit that belongs to Jekyll and that is much too large for him. The men
search the entire laboratory, as well as the surgeon’s theater below and the
other rooms in the building, but they find neither a trace of Jekyll nor a
corpse. They note a large mirror and think it strange to find such an item in a
scientific laboratory. Then, on Jekyll’s business table, they find a large
envelope addressed to Utterson that contains three items. The first is a will,
much like the previous one, except that it replaces Hyde’s name with
Utterson’s. The second is a note to Utterson, with the present day’s date on
it. Based on this piece of evidence, Utterson surmises that Jekyll is still
alive—and he wonders if Hyde really died by suicide or if Jekyll killed him.
This note instructs Utterson to go home immediately and read the letter that
Lanyon gave him earlier. It adds that if he desires to learn more, Utterson can
read the confession of “Your worthy and unhappy friend, Henry Jekyll.” Utterson
takes the third item from the envelope—a sealed packet—and promises Poole that
he will return that night and send for the police. He then heads back to his
office to read Lanyon’s letter and the contents of the sealed packet.</div>
<h3 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter 12: Dr. Lanyon’s Statement<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
This chapter constitutes a word-for-word transcription of the letter
Lanyon intends Utterson to open after Lanyon’s and Jekyll’s deaths. Lanyon
writes that after Jekyll’s last dinner party, he received a strange letter from
Jekyll. The letter asked Lanyon to go to Jekyll’s home and, with the help of
Poole, break into the upper room—or “cabinet”—of Jekyll’s laboratory. The
letter instructed Lanyon then to remove a specific drawer and all its contents
from the laboratory, return with this drawer to his own home, and wait for a
man who would come to claim it precisely at midnight. The letter seemed to
Lanyon to have been written in a mood of desperation. It offered no explanation
for the orders it gave but promised Lanyon that if he did as it bade, he would
soon understand everything.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Lanyon duly went to Jekyll’s home, where Poole and a locksmith met him.
The locksmith broke into the lab, and Lanyon returned home with the drawer.
Within the drawer, Lanyon found several vials, one containing what seemed to be
salt and another holding a peculiar red liquid. The drawer also contained a
notebook recording what seemed to be years of experiments, with little
notations such as “double” or “total failure!!!” scattered amid a long list of
dates. However, the notebooks offered no hints as to what the experiments
involved. Lanyon waited for his visitor, increasingly certain that Jekyll must
be insane. As promised, at the stroke of midnight, a small, evil-looking man
appeared, dressed in clothes much too large for him. It was, of course, Mr.
Hyde, but Lanyon, never having seen the man before, did not recognize him. Hyde
seemed nervous and excited. He avoided polite conversation, interested only in
the contents of the drawer. Lanyon directed him to it, and Hyde then asked for
a graduated glass. In it, he mixed the ingredients from the drawer to form a
purple liquid, which then became green. Hyde paused and asked Lanyon whether he
should leave and take the glass with him, or whether he should stay and drink it
in front of Lanyon, allowing the doctor to witness something that he claimed
would “stagger the unbelief of Satan.” Lanyon, irritated, declared that he had
already become so involved in the matter that he wanted to see the end of it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Taking up the glass, Hyde told Lanyon that his skepticism of
“transcendental medicine” would now be disproved. Before Lanyon’s eyes, the
deformed man drank the glass in one gulp and then seemed to swell, his body
expanding, his face melting and shifting, until, shockingly, Hyde was gone and
Dr. Jekyll stood in his place. Lanyon here ends his letter, stating that what
Jekyll told him afterward is too shocking to repeat and that the horror of the
event has so wrecked his constitution that he will soon die.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter 13: Henry Jekyll’s Full Statement of the Case<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
This chapter offers a transcription of the letter Jekyll leaves for
Utterson in the laboratory. Jekyll writes that upon his birth he possessed a
large inheritance, a healthy body, and a hardworking, decent nature. His
idealism allowed him to maintain a respectable seriousness in public while
hiding his more frivolous and indecent side. By the time he was fully grown, he
found himself leading a dual life, in which his better side constantly felt
guilt for the transgressions of his darker side. When his scientific interests
led to mystical studies as to the divided nature of man, he hoped to find some
solution to his own split nature. Jekyll insists that “man is not truly one,
but truly two,” and he records how he dreamed of separating the good and evil
natures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Jekyll reports that, after much research, he eventually found a chemical
solution that might serve his purposes. Buying a large quantity of salt as his
last ingredient, he took the potion with the knowledge that he was risking his
life, but he remained driven by the hopes of making a great discovery. At
first, he experienced incredible pain and nausea. But as these symptoms
subsided, he felt vigorous and filled with recklessness and sensuality. He had
become the shrunken, deformed Mr. Hyde. He hypothesizes that Hyde’s small
stature owed to the fact that this persona represented his evil side alone,
which up to that point had been repressed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Upon first looking into a mirror after the transformation, Jekyll-turned-Hyde
was not repulsed by his new form; instead, he experienced “a leap of welcome.”
He came to delight in living as Hyde. Jekyll was becoming too old to act upon
his more embarrassing impulses, but Hyde was a younger man, the personification
of the evil side that emerged several years after Jekyll’s own birth.
Transforming himself into Hyde became a welcome outlet for Jekyll’s passions.
Jekyll furnished a home and set up a bank account for his alter ego, Hyde, who
soon sunk into utter degradation. But each time he transformed back into
Jekyll, he felt no guilt at Hyde’s dark exploits, though he did try to right
whatever wrongs had been done.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
It was not until two months before the Carew murder that Jekyll found
cause for concern. While asleep one night, he involuntarily transformed into
Hyde—without the help of the potion—and awoke in the body of his darker half.
This incident convinced him that he must cease with his transformations or risk
being trapped in Hyde’s form forever. But after two months as Jekyll, he caved
in and took the potion again. Hyde, so long repressed, emerged wild and
vengefully savage, and it was in this mood that he beat Carew to death,
delighting in the crime. Hyde showed no remorse for the murder, but Jekyll
knelt and prayed to God for forgiveness even before his transformation back was
complete. The horrifying nature of the murder convinced Jekyll never to
transform himself again, and it was during the subsequent months that Utterson
and others remarked that Jekyll seemed to have had a weight lifted from his
shoulders, and that everything seemed well with him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Eventually, though, Jekyll grew weary of constant virtue and indulged
some of his darker desires—in his own person, not that of Hyde. But this dip
into darkness proved sufficient to cause another spontaneous transformation
into Hyde, which took place one day when Jekyll was sitting in a park, far from
home. As Hyde, he immediately felt brave and powerful, but he also knew that
the police would seize him for his murder of Carew. He could not even return to
his rooms to get his potions without a great risk of being captured. It was
then that he sent word to Lanyon to break into his laboratory and get his
potions for him. After that night, he had to take a double dose of the potion
every six hours to avoid spontaneous transformation into Hyde. As soon as the
drug began to wear off, the transformation process would begin. It was one of
these spells that struck him as he spoke to Enfield and Utterson out the
window, forcing him to withdraw.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
In his last, desperate hours, Hyde grew stronger as Jekyll grew weaker.
Moreover, the salt necessary for the potion began to run out. Jekyll ordered
more, only to discover that the mineral did not have the same effect; he
realized that the original salt must have contained an impurity that made the
potion work. Jekyll then anticipated the fast approach of the moment when he
must become Hyde permanently. He thus used the last of the potion to buy
himself time during which to compose this final letter. Jekyll writes that he
does not know whether, when faced with discovery, Hyde will kill himself or be
arrested and hanged—but he knows that by the time Utterson reads this letter,
Henry Jekyll will be no more.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%;">
<br /></div>
<br />
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com20tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-42798530206456394742012-12-01T22:03:00.003-08:002012-12-01T22:03:50.942-08:00I Semester (General English Notes)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: red;">Textures of English</span></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
Little Bit of What You Fancy<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Desmond Morris<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Desmond
Morris is most famous for his work as a zoologist and ethnologist (study about
human behavior), was born on 24 January 1928.
He has written a number of books and produced a number of television
shows. He first came into attention in
1960’s as a presenter of ITV television’s Zoo Time. His studies mainly focus on animal and human
behavior, explained from a zoological point of view. His famous works include <i>The Naked Ape, The Human Zoo, Manwatching and Babywatching. </i>In this
essay he talks about his own mother and the people who lived during the 18<sup>th</sup>
century who were least bothered about the health foods and diet regimes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Morris’
mother in tune with 18<sup>th</sup> century:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Desmond
Morris talks about his own mother who was born during the reign of Queen
Victoria, and she enjoyed the robust food pleasures (less importance to healthy
foods, table manners), she ate with lots of gusto piling her plate with greasy,
fatty, fried up grill foods without any anxiety about their possible bad
effects. It is advisable to chew each
mouthful of food thirty-two times before swallowing. Watching his mother in action, Morris wanted
to match her appetite and he also remarked that if she ignores the words of
health gurus and diet experts, she would die young.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Simple
truth behind her mother:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> She lived
the whole of twentieth century (99 years of age) without even giving a moment’s
thought to know what was correct to eat.
If it tasted good it was all right for her. Her lack of anxiety (worry) about the diet
kept her fit. For a good digestion you
need to be perfectly relaxed in what we are eating. Only then, the parasympathetic nervous system
will help us in good digestion. We
should never worry about our diet system when we start to eat. On the other hand if we eat in fear and
tension body refuses to co-operate and would suffer from cancer which induces
effects from the nervous system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modern
Pontificators:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Now a day
the modern pontificators (one who gives their opinion) feels that, it is their
duty to tell the rest of us about what we should and should not eat, as though
thinking that they have discovered the secrets of the eternal life. Author feels that there are two flaws in
their arguments. First, they keep on
changing their views. Secondly, they
over the fact that the human species evolved as an omnivore and hence require a
bigger variety of food stuffs for the body to pick out what it needs and
discards the rest. Only food, that keeps
us different from our animal rivals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Problems
faced by human beings:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> So many
people suffer from obesity, indigestion and various diet deficiencies. The answer lies in their lifestyle. They don’t realize that man needs a variety
of foods for good health. In the urban,
the living scenario is too indifferent since they suffer from various anxiety
problems and work tensions finally ending up in wrong digestion of food stuffs
they eat. Food should be savoured (tasted), relished, enjoyed and digested at
leisure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Food
taboos and totems:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to author, there are two reasons for the existence of so many food taboos
(ban), namely totems (special respect to religious emblem) and poisons. People from ancient times chose a particular
animal as a mascot a god-figure and tried to protect it. For example: cows are considered to be sacred
for the Hindus. This protection included
not eating it. Another reason was the deep-seated
humar fear of being poisoned. This
irrational fear makes people avoid certain foods and causes anxiety when we eat
anything for enjoyment. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Our
ancestors had countered with a natural caution and it is this caution that can
be exploited all too easily and some animals were treated as god they avoid
eating them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Author
feels that we should never consider the words of food experts or diet gurus. He
also thought that he would die ten year ago and in mean time he would like to
try out the food stuffs prepared by various cooks. Later he managed to live for
another ten years since he maintained to disrespect the words of diet fascists
who spoil our bookstalls, radio stations and news agents. So, we should enjoy all kinds of foods and
need not worry about the advice of diet experts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Headache<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> R.K.
Narayan (1906-2001) is one of the most famous and distinguished Indian writer
in English. He had a fine insight into
various aspects on the lives of the poor and the middle class people,
particularly in South India. He makes
the dull and common place events more interesting and this essay is one such
essay. <span class="apple-style-span">In a writing
career that spanned over sixty years, Narayan received many awards and honours.
</span> His writings are full of
humour. In this essay he explains the
advantages of headache.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
blessing for Mankind:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> R.K.
Narayan explains how headache conferred on mankind as a blessing by a benign
providence and also talks about the usefulness of headache to avoid difficult
situations. He later narrates an
incident in his school life about the letter writing exercise, where his
teacher used headache as a cause in the specimen letter. He always wondered what made his teacher to
select for headache as a cause even in a specimen letter. Later he talks about
the drill class during his school days and how students usually mentioned
‘headache’ as an excuse for avoiding the drill class after the school
hours. One day the instructor asked all
the students suffering from headache to hold their arms. For many students it
raised large hope. The instructor also
added that he was going to give them some special exercise to cure their
splitting headache. Not even a boy
raised his arms. Thus the instructor put an end to that problem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Touch
of Importance:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Headache
gives the sufferer a touch of importance because it can be mentioned in any
social gathering and is well taken. No
other pain can be so openly mentioned with freedom from punishment. Other aches sound crude and bad which cannot
be mentioned in publish and thus headache helps us to avoid many embarrassing
situation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What
is indisposition?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Indisposition
is a superior expression; it can be used only by eminent people. R. K. Narayan was really concerned about
finding the real meaning of the word indisposition since it is very vague and
confusing. He feels that he was not able
to understand the meaning of the word indisposition except that it sounds very
well in press notes or health bulletins or in messages from eminent men to
gatherings to which they have been invited.
It cannot be written directly and it will sound better in the third person. A gentlemen is an eminent one, has a
secretary or a deputy who can speak for him.
For example a gentleman regrets his inability to attend the meeting
today owing to indisposition (sickness or unwillingness). People will understand and accept the statement
and will not question the concerned person.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> R.K.
Narayan wants to know the perfect meaning of indisposition. Is the concerned person down with flu or
malaria or cold or rheumatism (pain in joints and muscles)? He feels that the word indisposition could be
used only at a particular level, not by all and if a school boy says “As I am
indisposed, I want to be let off”, he will have his ears twisted for his
intelligence beyond his age.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Headache
as an excuse:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If we
openly say that we want to avoid the situation or an important meeting, people
will get angry. No one has really got
courage to tell that he/she is not willing to attend a meeting or a social
gathering. The world is not yet ripe for such outspokenness and frankness. So we safely use headache as an excuse.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> At home,
headache is used as an excuse to avoid many uncomfortable situations. The mother-in-law, who is angry with the
daughter-in-law, uses it to avoid food.
The son, who does not want to take his wife out, gives headache as an
excuse. The boy, who has skipped his
homework, claims headache in order to avoid his tutor and to send him back
away. The cultured existence is not to
interfere too deeply, but to accept the face value as expressed by the speaker.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Headache
has become a confirmed habit. Lots of medicines have been produced to cure
headache, which people always carry with them and feels uneasy without
them. Opticians give glasses to cure and
relieve headache. All these things prove
that mankind easily begins to believe in myths.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">My
Early Days<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
A.P.J
Abdul Kalam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Dr. Avul
Pakir Jainlabdeen Abdul Kalam wa born in the small pilgrim town of Rameswaram
in Tamild Nadu, as a son of a boatman.
Kalam was hard working and ambitious.
He aspired to be a pilot, but went on to design rockets under the
inspiration of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. He
became the Director of the Defence Research and was the force behind the
development of ‘Agni’ and ‘Trishul’ rockets under the missile programme. He also got Bharat Ratna award and published
an autobiographical work called <i>Wings of
Fire</i>, which is an inspiring story of how India can achieve. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His
Childhood:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He was
born in Rameswaram and his father Jainulabdeen was a middle class Muslim. His father had neither much of formal
education nor much wealth but though he had generosity of spirit and
wisdom. His mother Ashiamma, who is
quite generous in providing food for outsiders and and Kalam recollects his
vision how he sat with the outsiders and ate every day. His parents were widely
regarded as an ideal couple. He was one
among many children in his family with distinguished looks born to tall and
handsome parents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Location
of his house:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He lived
in his ancestral house which was build in the middle of 19<sup>th</sup> century
and it was a fairly large pucca house built up of limestone and brick on the
Mosque Street in Rameswaram. His parents
took care of his needs. He ate with his
mother on the floor of kitchen, on which she ladle rice with aromatic sambhar
and with a variety of sharp pickle and small amount of coconut chutney.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jainulabdeen,
a pious Muslim:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He
describes about an old mosque in his locality where his father use to take him
every evening. He never has any idea of
the Arabic prayers chanted (sung) but he was convinced that they reached
God. When his father came out of the
mosque after the prayers, people of different religions would be sitting
outside waiting for him. He used to dip
his finger inside the bowl of water and say prayers to cure diseases and other
disables. Many came home to thank his
father after they get cured. He always
smiled and asked them to thank Allah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> His
father’s close friend named Pakshi Lakshmana Sastry would always discuss about
spiritual matters with him. Kalam, asked
his father about the relevance of prayers and he replied that there is nothing
so mysterious about prayers. It is a
communion of the spirit and people. He
is capable of explaining difficult religious concepts in a simple manner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kalam’s
inspiration:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Abdul
Kalam tried to follow his father as an example in his life. When he was six years old when his father was
working on a project to build a wooden sailboat he sat beside him and admired
his work. Ahmed Jallaluddin who married
Kalam’s sister Zohara, helped his father.
Later he narrates about a disastrous wind which collapsed a train full
of passengers in Pamban Bridge. Ahmed
turned to be his friend though there is a difference in their age. They walked along the sea shore discussing on
spiritual matters. Their first halt
would be near Lord Shiva temple, and they talked about God and relationship
with him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Though
Ahmed’s education was limited, he was the only person in the island who can
speak and write English. He always
speaks about scientific discoveries, contemporary literature and achievements
of medical sciences and widened his knowledge.
He encouraged Kalam to read and borrow books from the library of S.T.R
Manickam, a former militant nationalist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">His
Second Inspiration:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Samsuddin, cousin of Kalam was the next
person to inspire him greatly. He was
the sole distributor for newspapers in Rameswaram. The newspapers would arrive from Pamban. These newspapers were mainly bought by the
reading demands of 1000 strong literate people who lived in Rameswaram and few
readers would discuss Hilter, Mahatma Gandhi and Jinnah. Kalam collected the
bundles of newspapers thrown from train and he earned his first wage. Second World War was broke out in 1939 when
he was eight years old. He used to
collect tamarind seeds and sell it to a provision shop. Jallaludin would tell
him stories about war and he talks about the solitariness of his locality after
war.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kalam’s
Close friends:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He had
three close friends in his childhood.
Ramanadha Sastry, Aravindan and Sivaprakasan. All these children were from orthodox Hindu
Brahmin families. Ramanadha Sastry was
the son of Pakshi Lakshaman Sastry, and later he took priesthood of Rameswaram
temple; Aravindan went into business of arranging transport for visiting
pilgrims; Sivaprakasan became a catering contractor for Southern Railways. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Science
Teacher:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> One day
when he was in his fifth standard at Elementary School a new teacher came to
his class. He never could digest a Hindu
and a Muslim student sitting together.
He asked Kalam to sit in the last row and later he went home and told
his parents about the incident.
Lakshmana Sastry summoned the teacher and asked not to poison the minds
of children with social inequality.
Later his science teacher Siva Subramania Iyer an orthodox Brahmin who
tried to break the social barriers helped Kalam in studies and later he joined
in high-school for his higher education.
Kalam was invited to his home for a meal but his wife refused to serve
him. Later his teacher served him the dinner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Higher
education:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> After the
Second World War, India’s freedom was eminent.
He asked his father’s permission to leave Rameswaram and study at the
district headquarters in Ramanathapuram.
Later his father took him along with his three brothers to the mosque
and recited prayers from the Holy Quran, and wished ‘May God Bless You, my
child’. Samsuddin and Ahmed Jallaluddin
travelled with him till high-school.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Due to
his homesickness, he found hard to fit with the new environment. He used to recollect the words of Jallaluddin
who always spoke about the power of positive thinking whenever he felt homesick
or dejected. He strived hard to control
his thoughts and his mind was filled up with the memory of his home town. He used positive thinking and overcame his
home-sickness. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How
to Escape From Intellectual Rubbish<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> -Bertrand
Russell<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Bertrand
Russell (1872-1970), British philosopher, logician, essayist and social critic
is best known for his work in analytic philosophy and mathematical logic. In the course of his long career, be made
significant contribution to a broad range of subjects including education,
history, political theory and religious studies. Russell was awarded the Noble Prize for
literature in 1950. His major works
include ‘The History of Western Philosophy, the Problems of Philosophy and The
Principles of Mathematics’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rules
to avoid foolish opinions:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to Russell many issues can be settled by personal observation. To avoid any foolish opinion which makes
mankind look inclined, no superhuman genius is required to rectify our
mistakes. Personal observation can keep
us from all silly error. Russell
supported his view by pointing out the mistake committed by the great
philosopher Aristotle. He could have
avoided the mistake of thinking that women have fewer teeth than men, by the
simple device of asking his wife to keep her mouth open while he counted. He did not do so because he thought that he
knew. Russell says that many writers who
knew less about unicorns and salamander spoke about them in their works but
none of the writers had ever seen them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Contrary
opinions:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If an
opinion contrary to your own makes you angry, it shows that your views are not
based on strong evidence. If someone
says that two and two are five or that Iceland is on the equator, you feel pity
on them rather getting angry, unless you know little of mathematics or
geography, otherwise his opinion will make you feel contrary and makes you
angry. The most heated arguments rise up
in theology, since there is no evidence either way. Whenever we find ourselves getting angry
about a difference of opinion, we should always re-examine our views.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Insular
prejudice</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to Bertrand Russell, a good way of overcoming dogmatism (one is right and other
is wrong) is to become aware of different opinions by travelling to different
countries. He travelled through many
countries and observed their cultures and traditions which made him to diminish
his intensity of insular prejudice (dislike of particular group). In some cases, the effect may not be
beneficial. When the Manchus invaded the
Chinese, it was custom of Chinese for the women to have small feet and among
Manchus for the men to wear pigtails.
Instead of dropping their customs, the two countries adopted each
other’s custom. Chinese continued to
wear pigtails until the revolution of 1911.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Imaginary
arguments:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author feels that, we can have imaginary arguments with a person with difficult
views about the technology like Gandhiji.
Mahatma Gandhi disapproved railways and steamboats and machinery. He wanted to undo the Industrial Revolution,
but for the Westerners most people take the advantage of modern
technology. Such imaginary arguments
helped Russell to overcome his dogmatism.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Self-esteem:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He warns
us against the views that flatter our self-respect. It is a general human opinion which makes
them think that their own sex or country is superior to others. Men think that all the poets, inventors and
scientists are male, but women feel most of them are criminals. We hide the demerits of our country in order
to show off the merits possessed by our nations. There may be beings superior to us in other
parts of the universe which may think us very inferior by the same way how we
feel superior to jelly fish.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Steps
to avoid fear:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Fear
according to Russell is the root cause of all errors. Fears sometimes operates
directly by inventing rumours of disaster in wartime or by imagining objects
such as ghosts, sometimes it operates indirectly by creating belief in
something such as heaven for ourselves and hell for our enemies. Fear has many forms, fear of death, fear of
the dark, fear of the unknown, fear of herd.
There are two ways of avoiding fear.
One is by convincing ourselves that we are safe from disaster. The other
is by the practice of pure courage which is difficult for many people. So people prefer the former method and try to
secure safety with the help of talismans, spells, witchcraft and
incantations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> During
the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, witches and sorcerers
(witchcraft) were used to overcome fear.
Socrates on the day of his death expressed his belief that, in the next
world (heaven) he/she would be accompanied by Gods and heroes but Plato in his
work ‘Republic’ argued his views about next world. He argued that the information gave by
Socrates weren’t true, but to make soldiers more willing to die in battle. He feels that the traditional myth about
Hades (river of Death) represents the spirits of the dead as unhappy. Belief in future life proves to be more
effective way of overcoming fear. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Key to Courage<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Ida Alexa
Ross Wylie, better known as I.A.R Wylie, was one of the most respected authors
of her generation. She lost her mother
very early, and was later raised by her father.
She had no formal education. She
was given large numbers of books to read and was taught to rely on her
instincts until she was in her teens.
Many of her storied and novels turned into movie, the most famous being <i>Keeper of the Flame </i>(1942). In this essay, the author feels that fear can
be useful to kindle our courage to do our best.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Significance
of Fear:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to I.A.R Wylie fear play a vital role in bringing out our hidden
capacities. She asked a question to
herself “When was I (author) happiest? She came upon with an unexpected answer;
she enjoyed herself the most when she had badly scared. Fear makes it possible to trust in one’s own
self to face difficulty or danger. As a
young child she was fearless and she had an unusual upbringing. She was isolated from children and she use to
travel all alone. When she first went to
school at the age of fourteen, she caught fear from the other children brought
up by orthodox methods might catch mumps and measles. She turned very nervous and shy. But, whenever she met with danger, her fear
aroused in her with unsuspected powers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Her
personal Experience:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When she
first went to United States her publishers expected her to give a speech during
a public dinner, she was almost sick with fear.
Her tongue was tied up with shyness. Later she gave speech like a
practiced speaker. She realized that she
needed fear to spur (encourage) her talents.
Even the actors, singers and public performers agree that unless they
fear they are not likely to give a good performance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soldier’s
Fear:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Bravest
soldiers are not ‘fearless’. It is found
that soldiers are those who go to battle sweating with fear. Army doctors observed that it is not the
tough guy who endure the stress of war, but those who imagine fearful
consequences to themselves and to others for whom they are responsible. “Fear when rightly used is the father of
courage”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In 1942,
she was invited by British government with several other writers to observe how
Britain stood during various difficult situations. She was afraid to travel by flight to Great
Britain during the war time. But, after
her journey she felt refreshing and vigorous.
Without fear there is no real courage.
It is the power to face any kind of challenge in life. Fear stimulates our energy and mind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Noel’s
experience:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> An
English writer, Noel Streatfield once told her that she was on her way to
Singapore by ship and the passengers became very unfriendly through her
journey. The captain met Noel on the
deck and asked her to give a hint to the passengers that the ship might suffer
from the teeth of a hurricane (cyclone/storm).
After hearing it the passengers developed high spirits and good temper
with her through her journey. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fear
of losing Job:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
author’s friend was nervous and shy. One
day when he was called to the office of his vice-president, his worry turned
into fear. Worry isn’t same as the
fear. A change came over him and he
faced his superiors in a light- headed mood.
The interview ended in a handshake and her friend was promoted
afterwards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Fear has
spurred him to do at his best. Fear when
rightly used can do miracles in life.
Fear can make humans to develop superhuman qualities. Thus ‘Fear is the Father of Courage’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<o:p><b><span style="color: red;">Verse </span></b></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="line-height: 115%; text-align: center;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">“Lines Written in Early Spring”</b></div>
<div class="textbodya" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span class="textbodya1">The opening
stanza of William Wordsworth’s “Lines Written in Early Spring” sets the tone
for the underlying theme of the poem: Wordsworth’s narrator lying in a grove
where his thoughts are allowed to flow uninterrupted in what Wordsworth
describes as “In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts / Bring sad thoug</span>hts to the mind.” (3-4). importantly,
these last two lines of the first stanza easily catch a reader off guard.
The quiet and descriptively beautiful setting seems to have brought
Wordsworth’s narrator to a state of uninhibited inward contemplation of the
external civilized world, and found this subject of thought emotionally
disturbing. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="textbodya" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
It is the second stanza of William
Wordsworth’s “Lines Written in Early Spring” that we are given the theme of the
poem when Wordsworth writes “And much it grieved my heart to think / what man
has made of man.” (7 and 8). Wordsworth, in his reflection of “What man
has made of man” (8), is describing how mankind, though civilized, has an inborn
spiritual connection to “Nature” and “nature’s fair works” (4). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="textbodya" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
The following three stanzas of William
Wordsworth’s “Lines Written in Early Spring” describe the natural scenery
around Wordsworth’s narrator as he sits in his emotionally sensitive mood, thinking
how life in the forest seems so beautiful and satisfying compared to life in
civilization. Wordsworth goes on to describe what he sees as “pleasure”
as “every flower / Enjoys the air it breathes” (11-12), and the birds that
hopped and played around him were written with every “least motion which they
made” (15) “seemed a thrill of pleasure” (16). Wordsworth goes so far as
to describe “pleasure” in the very “budding twigs” (17) that spread their
leaves to catch the “breezy air” (18). It is this lifestyle that
Wordsworth is jealous of and wishes that mankind could somehow return to the
nature. It is also this lifestyle that gives Wordsworth reason to pity mankind
for their empty pursuits and meaningless lifestyles.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="textbodya" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
The final stanza concludes William
Wordsworth’s “Lines Written in Early Spring” with the lines “If such be
Nature's holy plan, / Have I not reason to lament / What man has made of
man?” (22-24); not only repeating the eighth line of “What man has made of man”
(8) in the last, but also driving home Wordsworth’s main theme of “Lines
Written in Early Spring”. To Wordsworth, “Natures holy plan” (22) is for
mankind to live as an intricate (involving) part of nature, surrendering to
quiet cottages and subsistence farming, away from the bleak and pointless
miseries of city life. Man, in “Lines Written in Early Spring”, has
successfully perverted his nature and is so condemned to the incomplete and
aimless existence of civilization. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In many
ways, “Lines Written in Early Spring” would set the tone for Wordsworth’s
poetry; Wordsworth thereafter wrestling with the same theme of “Lines Written
in Early Spring” and lamenting civilization and “What man has made of man.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Ulysses<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Ulysses declares that there is little point in his staying
home “by this still hearth” with his old wife, giving out rewards and
punishments for the people who live in his kingdom. Still speaking to himself
he declares that he “cannot rest from travel” but feels compelled to live to
the fullest and swallow every last drop of life. He has enjoyed all his
experiences as a sailor who travels the seas, and he considers himself a symbol
for everyone who wanders and roams the earth. His travels have exposed him to
many different types of people and ways of living. They have also exposed him
to the “delight of battle” while fighting the Trojan War with his men. Ulysses
declares that his travels and encounters have shaped who he is: “I am a part of
all that I have met,” he asserts. Ulysses declares that it is boring to stay in
one place, and that to remain stationary is to rust rather than to shine; to
stay in one place is to pretend that all there is to life is the simple act of
breathing. His spirit yearns constantly
for new experiences that will broaden his horizons; he wishes “to follow
knowledge like a sinking star” and forever grow in wisdom and in learning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ulysses now speaks to an
unidentified audience concerning his son Telemachus, who will act as his
successor while the great hero resumes his travels: he says, “This is my son,
mine own Telemachus, to whom I leave the scepter (authority) and the isle
(island).” He speaks highly but also supports his son’s capabilities as a
ruler, praising his careful management, dedication, and devotion to the gods.
Telemachus will do his work of governing the island while Ulysses will do his
work of traveling the seas: “He works his work, I mine.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In the final stanza, Ulysses
addresses the mariners with whom he has worked, traveled, and weathered life’s
storms over many years. He declares that although he and they are old, they
still have the potential to do something noble and honorable before “the long
day wanes.” He encourages them to make use of their old age because “’tis not
too late to seek a newer world.” He declares that his goal is to sail onward
“beyond the sunset” until his death. Perhaps, he suggests, they may even reach
the “Happy Isles,” or the paradise of never ending summer described in Greek
mythology where great heroes like the warrior Achilles were believed to have
been taken after their deaths. Although Ulysses and his mariners are not as
strong as they were in youth, they are “strong in will” and are sustained by
their resolve to push onward relentlessly: “To strive, to seek, to find, and
not to yield.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 8.25pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.25pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<a href="" name="analysis"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When I have Fears<o:p></o:p></span></b></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This poem falls into two major thought groups:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keats expresses his
fear of dying young in the first thought, lines 1-12. He fears that he
will not fulfill himself as a writer (lines 1-8) and that he will lose his
beloved (lines 9-12).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Keats resolves his fears by
asserting the unimportance of love and fame in the concluding two and a
half lines of this sonnet.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The first quatrain (four lines)
emphasizes both how fertile his imagination is and how much he has to express;
hence the imagery of the harvest, e.g., "gleaned,"
"garners," "full ripened grain." </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A harvest is, obviously,
fulfillment in time, the culmination (to reach a high position) which yields a
valued product, as reflected in the grain being "full ripened."
Abundance is also apparent in the adjectives "high-piled" and
"rich." Keats is both the field of grain (his imagination is like the
grain to be harvested) and he is the harvester (writer of poetry).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
In the next quatrain (lines 5-8), he sees the world as full of material he
could transform into poetry (his is "the magic hand"); the material
is the beauty of nature ("night's starred face") and the larger
meanings he perceives beneath the appearance of nature or physical phenomena
("Huge cloudy </span><a href="http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html#symbol"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">symbols</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">") .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
In the third quatrain (lines 9-12), he turns to love. As the "fair
creature of an hour," his beloved is short-lived just as, by implication,
love is. The quatrain itself parallels the idea of little time, in being only
three and a half lines, the effect of this compression or shortening is of
a slight speeding-up of time. Is love as important as, less important than or
more important than poetry for Keats in this poem? Does the fact that he
devotes fewer lines to love than to poetry suggest anything about their
relative importance to him?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
The poet's concern with time (not enough time to fulfill his poetic gift and
love). Keats attributes two qualities to love: (1) it has the ability to
transform the world for the lovers ("faery power"), but of course
fairies are not real, and their enchantments are an illusion and (2) love
involves us with emotion rather than thought ("I feel" and
"unreflecting love").<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
Reflecting upon his feelings, which the act of writing this sonnet has
involved, Keats achieves some distancing from his own feelings and ordinary
life; this distancing enables him to reach a resolution. He thinks about the
human solitariness ("I stand alone") and human insignificance (the
implicit contrast between his lone self and "the wide world"). The
shore is a point of contact, the threshold between two worlds or conditions,
land and sea; so Keats is crossing a threshold, from his desire for fame and
love to accepting their unimportance and ceasing to fear and sadness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Unknown Citizen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">W. H. Auden’s poem entitled “The Unknown Citizen” is a portrayal of a
conflict between individualism and government control. “The Unknown Citizen” is
a government’s view of the perfect modern man in an unrealistic society. In
“The Unknown Citizen” the government has manipulated human intelligence to the
point that they have control over everyone’s lives and minds. The motive behind
the portrayal of an equal society is that it will eliminate hatred, envy and
war. While this proves true, the numerous side effects such as loss of
identity, lack of originality, and loss of personal feelings develop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">This citizen is portrayed as a normal and average human being who is
being honoured for being normal. Auden, however, uses the fact that the state
is honouring someone for being normal to criticise his society. The satiric
society depicted in “The Unknown Citizen” is the authors attempt to ridicule a
political system that tends to depersonalize its citizens and constantly
strives to create equality. The attempt to create an equal society to the
extreme makes many governments more like a dictatorship or communist system
rather than a democracy. The society portrayed in the poem takes the notion of perfection
and equality to the extreme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Auden develops the theme by describing
the character's life through the research of different bureaus, researchers,
and psychology workers. Each one of these descriptions points the same idea
that the character is a normal and obedient citizen. The poem consists of
several different kinds of people and organizations weighing in on the
character of our dear "Citizen."
First, the not-so-friendly-sounding "Bureau of Statistics"
says that "no official complaint" was ever made against him. More
than that, the guy was a veritable saint, whose good deeds included serving in
the army and not getting fired. He belonged to a union and paid his dues, and
he liked to have a drink from time to time.
" He served in war, never got fired from his job, popular with his
mates, and "normal in every way." <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This man was an
ordinary man who did what a normal man would do, and what an ordinary would
have. The "researchers in Public Opinion are content that he held the
proper opinions for he time the time of year; when there was peace, he was for
peace; when there was war, he went."
He went to war when he had to, just like the people who served in the
World Wars and in the Vietnam War. He left his home to do these things for his
country. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> His
list of stirring accomplishments goes on: he bought a newspaper and had normal
reactions to advertisements. He went to the hospital once – we don’t know what
for – and bought a few expensive appliances. He owned a record player, had a
radio, and had a refrigerator. He would
go with the flow and held the same opinions as everyone else regarding peace
and war. He had five kids, and they added to it by telling that he did not
interfere in their education. In fact, the only thing the government doesn’t
know about the guy is whether he was "free" and "happy,"
two utterly insignificant, trivial little details. They themselves came to a
conclusion that he couldn’t have been unhappy, though, because otherwise the
government would have heard.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The unknown citizen is someone who pays the taxes,
satisfies the employers, read the newspaper daily, has the correct number of
children, fights for the peace and supports the war etc. In spite of all these
facts, the citizen remains "unknown" we do not see any strong traits
in this unknown citizen. He is merely like any other ordinary man we can find
around us. He works in the way the society runs. We could not see how special
he appears or anything that could distinguish him from others. The stress for individuals to conform in this
system makes one loses his or her individualism. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For Elkana<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The comfortable and loving relationship in the family between husband
and wife, parents and child is poignantly (touchingly) brought out in a regular
conversation in a regular setting, in this poem.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The author
and his family, tempted by the warm April evening, decide to drag their chairs
outside and plant them on the uneven stone steps. There, they sit sprawled in
their chairs, in silence till the wife breaks this silence by commenting on a
broken window pane. She suggests a thing or two to her husband, assuming that
he doesn't know what he is supposed to do. She might even be aware of the fact
that he knows, but it’s just the comfort of replaying a familiar conversation
they have had many times over the years, which prompts her to tell him these
things. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The husband doesn't want to contradict her and understands the futility
(talking) of arguing. He decides to maintain peace by humorously accepting that
she is always right! They both accept each other’s faults and put up with each
other because the bond they share is much deeper than what’s seen on the
surface. Even though she might nag him and he might ignore her at times and
though they disagree on many accounts, they both love each other immensely.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The son, who is playing about in the
garden, hears his mother's voice travelling up and down the lawn and for some
reason this reminds him that he needs his dinner. He goes up to his parents,
and demands his dinner with "masterly determination". At this point,
both the author and his wife, in unusual rapport, state one unspoken thought-
their son must be disciplined. The wife expects her husband to discipline the
boy but he looks away. Before her boy could repeat himself, she raises her
finger and tells him firmly that he will have to wait another 5 minutes. When
he doesn't listen, she tries pacifying him but to no avail. The young boy's
logic is that he won't be hungry in 5 minutes. This argument appeals to the
father and reminds him of himself. The father feels that such a logician
deserves his dinner straightaway. Even the mother is amused by her son and
laughs in delight! Both parents end up indulging their son. Her wonderful
laughter holds the family together and all 3 of them rise to go back into the house.</span></span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;"><br />
</span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;"><br />
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<div style="line-height: 115%; margin: 8.25pt 0in; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><b><span style="color: red;">Vignettes</span></b></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Marriage
Is a Private Affair</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
- Chinua Achebe<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Chinua
Achebe is one of the best writer’s of Africa.
He belongs to Nigeria. He is a
prominent contemporary African writer in English now living in USA. He has written several novels which include <i>Things Fall Apart, Arrow of God and No
Longer at Ease</i>, a collection of poems which won for him the Commonwealth
Poetry Prize in 1972. His writings
reflect the conditions of the African society, particularly the beliefs and
traditions of the Ibo tribe to which he belongs. In this story he talks about the life style
Ibo community who oppose love marriage.
He also attacks the outdated customs and beliefs of the Ibo tribe
community.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ibo
tribe’s:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Nnaemeka,
who belonged to the Ibo community, falls in love with Nene who lived in
Lagos. On one fine afternoon, Nene sat
with Nnaemeka in her room at 16 Kasanga Street, Lagos asking him whether he
wrote a letter to his father regarding the love affair and his wish to marry
Nene. He replied that it is better to tell him after he reach home on
leave. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Nnaemeka’s father may not like his marriage to Nene. He feels that his Ibo tribe people where
slaves to customs and traditions. They
liked only arranged marriage. Nene
thinks in the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the city it is a joke that a person’s
tribe should decide marriage. She said
that she believed the Ibo tribe to be kind people. Nnaemeka said that marriage was a different
matter. He also says, if Nene’s father lived in the
heart of Ibibo land he would be exactly as his father.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Letter
from Nnaemeka’s father:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Later he
receives a letter from his father stating that she had found a suitable girl
named Ugoye Nwede, the eldest daughter of Jacob Nweke. She was uneducated but she had a proper
Christian upbringing. Her Sunday school
teacher said she reads bible very fluently, and planning to start discussion
about marriage in the month of December. Nnaemeka thought of showing the letter
to Nene, but later decided on second thought not to.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> On the
second evening he returned from Lagos to home.
He sat with his father and began to speak about his love with Nene Atang
from Calabar. He said she is working as
a teacher. His father said that a
Christian should not teach and he asked his son for more details, and he left
the room angrily.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Against
Nnaemeka’s will:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The next
day his father called him and asked to cancel his engagement with Nene. But Nnaemeka was firm and tried to convince
his father saying that she is a good Christian who has all the good qualities
of Ugoye. Later the old man said he
would never see the girl and stopped speaking to his son. Nnaemeka thought that his anger would pass
away. That night, his father did not
eat. She feels that it was a duty of a
father to show what is right and wrong. He said to his father that he will
change his mind after seeing Nene<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Role
of Villagers against their marriage:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The news
of Nnameka’s marriage proposal with Nene spread amongst villagers. An old man of the village said that he had
never heard of man marrying a girl speaking a different language and the other
man quoted the bible ‘Sons shall rise against their Fathers’, which said the
sons would disobey their parents.
Another said, the world was going to end. The discussions assumed a religious tone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Madubogwu
suggested that a native doctor should be consulted. An herbalist could cure his sickness. The medicine Amalile could be tried on him.
It would help women to get back to their husbands. But Okeke refused to call in the native
doctor. Later he mentioned the case of
Mrs. Ochuba, to support his views that, the medicine prepared for husbands and
she gave it to a different person. But,
Nnameka and Nene got married against his father’s wish after few days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Few
months later:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> After six
months Nnameka received letters from his father who cut off his son’s wife from
the marriage photo and returned it back to his son stating that he have nothing
to do with Nene. She looks into the
letter and starts to cry. Later Nnameka
console his wife saying that his father an essentially good-natured man and he
will understand them one day. They both
lived in a little village in the heart of the Ibo country most happily but
Okeke displayed much temper whenever his son’s name was mentioned by the
villagers. Though he had a pain of
missing his son, he never showed out and controlled his feelings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Letter
from Daughter-in-law:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> One day
Okeke received a letter from Nene. He
could not control himself from reading the letter. Nene said that her two sons were eager to
meet their grandfather. She requested
her father-in-law to permit them. Her
husband would take the children during his leave and she would stay back in
Lagos.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The old
man’s determination became weakened. He
tried to steal his heart and control his emotions. He leaned against a window
and looked out. The sky was overcast
with heavy black could and high wind began to blow. Okeke was trying hard not to think of his two
grandsons, but he knew he was fighting a losing battle. He imagined his grandsons standing outside,
shut from home. He later felt sorry for
his action and he could not sleep that night because of a deep regret for wrong
doing a fear that he might die without seeing his grandsons. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Doll’s House<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Katherine
Mansfield<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Katherine
Mansfield (1888-1923), was born in New Zealand and educated in England. She was influenced by Russian writer Anton
Chekhov and like him; she depicted the inner life and feelings of the
characters with sympathy and understanding.
Her work introduced a new form of psychological realism into the modern
short story. <span class="apple-style-span">Among her most well known
stories is "<i>The Garden Party,"
"The Daughters of the Late Colonel," and "The Fly.</i>"</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> In this story The
Doll’s House she talks about three elements; they are child psychology, class
distinction and making fun of the society.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Burnell’s family:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> This story begins with the Burnell’s
family where Mrs. Hay stayed with them and went back to town and she sent the
children a doll’s house. It was a
beautiful doll’s house. The children are
Isabel (eldest), Lottie (middle), and Kezia (younger). They were happy to receive this gift from
Mrs. Hay which was carried into the courtyard by Pat who is the servant working
in Burnell’s family. The doll’s house
was advised to be kept in the courtyard because of the pain smell that came
from the doll’s house. So, Aunt Beryl’s
wants to keep from the children since the smell of the paint make anyone
seriously ill.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Description of the Doll’s house:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The doll’s house was painted with a dark,
oily, spinach-green, picked out with bright yellow. Its two solid little chimneys, glued on to
the roof, were painted red and white, and the door, gleaming with yellow
varnish, was little slab of toffee. Four
windows, real windows were divided into panes by a broad streak of green. It also contains a drawing room, a dining
room, the kitchen and two bedrooms. All
the rooms were papered and the pictures on the walls were painted with gold
frames, whereas the red carpet covered all the floors except the kitchen, the
beds are covered with real bedclothes, a cradle, a stove, a dresser with tiny
plates and big jug.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> But what amazed Kezia was the lamp. It stood in the middle of the dining room
table, a little lamp with a white globe, and it was even filled all ready for
lightning, though, of course we couldn’t light it. It looked some kind of oil
inside the lamp when we shook it. The
Burnell children were so elated and in the next day they wanted to tell the
news to everyone about the Doll’s house.
Isabel was bossy and she said that only she has got the right to choose
the friends whom she would like to invite to look at the Doll’s house. Later she did not invite the Kelvey’s
girls. She also ordered that, only two
should be invited everyday to have a glimpse at the Doll’s house. Kezia was the kind hearted amongst the three,
whereas she was the one who wanted even the Kelveys girls to be invited.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kelvey’s family:</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Through the Kelvey’s family, the author
highlights the class distinction. The
Kelvey’s were left out because they were the daughters of a washer woman and a
jail bird. They were shunned by
everybody. Even teacher had a special
voice for them and special smile for the other children. They were the daughters of a hard-working
little washerwoman, who went about from house to house by the day to earn
money. The children are Lil (elder) and
Else (younger). Lil was stout plain
child and she came to school in a dress made out of table cloth, whereas Else
was dressed up in white rather like a night gown and a pair of little boy’s
boots. Both of them looked very strange. Else a very silent girl and only when
she wanted something she uses to give Lil a little tug to her skirt. They never
failed to understand each other.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Same school:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> As there are no other school for miles the
rich Burnells had to send their children to the same school where the poor
Kelvey’s children studies. It was a
mixed school where the Judges little girls and the milkman’s children were
forced to study together. But the
children still looked upon children from the poor families like the Kelvey’s
and kept them at a distance.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Later that evening, Isabel chose Emmie
Cole and Legan Logan to see the Doll’s house first. The other girls would also have their
chance. Only the little Kelvey’s were
not invited because they belong to poor family.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kezia, the kind-hearted</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Burnell girl’s mother never allows her
daughter to mix along with the Kelveys.
As days passed more children saw the doll’s house and the fame of it
spread. All the other girls use to make
fun of the Kelveys girls since her mother was a washerwoman and her father was
a jail bird. But, Kezia was the only one
who took pity on the Kelvey’s and invited them to have a look at the Doll’s
house. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Kezia saw the Kelvey’s children near her
and she called them and showed the Doll’s house. Since the immates were occupied with the
visitors Kezia secretly took the Kelvey children to see the doll’s house. When they were looking at the doll’s house,
Aunt Beryl who saw it, scolded Kezia for allowing the Kelvey’s. She shooed the Kelvey’s out as if they were
chickens.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Later Kelvey’s sat on the big red
drainpipe by the side of the road looking at the thick fences and Logan’s cows
Else came up close to her sister and said ‘I seen the Little Lamp”, and the
silence prevailed once more.</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Upper
Division Love<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Manohar Malgonkar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Manohar
Malgonkar is a prolific and distinguished Indian novelist and short story
writer. He was born in the year
1913. Besides writing history and few
novels, Malgonkar has to his credits a number of short stories. His famous
works include <i>Distant Drum, A Bend in the
Ganges, A Sky in Amber, and The Devil’s Wind</i>. In the short story, author talks about the
lower division clerk who falls in love with the film star Sunderbala, which
later turns into agony and anger and tries to take revenge over her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meeting
with the film star:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This is the
story about the lower division clerk who hold the photos of the film star
Sunderbala, three in his room and on in his wallet and he had seen every movie
in which she acted. He had a great
admiration for the film star. The first
time he meet her in real life was in a stationery counter of Buchumjee’s Store
who was accompanied with two body guards.
She came and asked for gold-plated fountain-pens with encrusted
tops. Before the clerk could speak, the
shop assistant stepped forward to answer her.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But luck
was in his way, on the counter she left her glasses and the clerk took it as an
opportunity to speak with her. Later the
film star smiled at him and said thank you. After that incident he knew that he
had no business to fall in love with the film star Sunderbala.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Clerk’s
role in the movie:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Every
day, before going to office he waited near the Super Gajraj Film Company
entrance with lots of hope of catching a glimpse of Sunderbala. He saw her a dozen times, but she did not
come care to look at him. No more smiles
from her. One fine morning he stood near
the entrance of the studio feeling cheated because the film star had not
arrived for the shooting and suddenly an unshaved man waved his hands towards
the waiting group near the gate. The
clerk got an opportunity to play a role of a bandit. He was to move towards the heroine and to
give a tug to her necklace. It didn’t
snap and come off, so he pulled with his full strength and the actress shouted
in pain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Next
take:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In the
next take Ramakanth, the hero of the movie jumped into the scene and he was to
give the clerk who acts a bandit a light tap on his chin. Then he would fall
down. But Ramakanth hit him very
hard. Then the narrator realized that
the hero of the movie had deliberately hit him.
Sunderbala was laughing, looking all these things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Revenge</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What was
given life by a smile was burnt out by a laugh.
Through her laugh the narrator came to know that Sunderbala has started
to hate him totally. On the next day he
went and met his friend Santokh Singh who was s high-spirited young man with a
passion for motorcycles. He explained
his friend about the insult he undertook during the film shoot. They later plan
to cut off the silencer and to ride along the road side where they plan to take
shooting. The fatty was driven mad, with his face turning red and it took
nearly five re-takes and in the end the director decided to shoot the scene
right through in spite of the noise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
narrator did a make-over as a policemen for the next scene, and the work
assigned for him is to drive up in the police van and put the handcuffs on
Ramakanth, motion him into the back of the van, lock the door and drive off
with the cameras taking shots of his handsome face through the grill wire. The narrator went through the scene quiet as
a lamb and when at the end he just raced the engine of the van and turned for
the road and crew had no idea what was happening.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Charity
Show</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
narrator drove the vehicle for an hour without any idea where he was
going. For two hours he laid down on the
grass and a thriller story and smoked cigarettes. He later bought a cardboard and a bottle of
red ink and he dipped his finger in the ink and wrote out the sign in bold
letter DANGEROUS LUNATIC KEEP AWAY. He
hung the board at the back of the van and drove through the busy streets until
reaching the Bolero theatre where they were having the charity show. Since Ramakanth failed to take Sunderbala to
the charity show the place beside the Minister was occupied by the actress
Shilamati who looked like a thousand dreams.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
narrator was enchanted by the new actress Shilamati and decided to pursue
her. The story reveals the common man’s
attraction for the film world, and film stars, the realities of the film world,
and the disappointment we get when we come closer to it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Ransom of Red Chief<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> -
O. Henry<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> O. Henry
was the pen-name of the well-known and highly talented American short-story
writer, William Sydney Porter. He was a
cartoonist and a journalist as well. He
has written about six hundred short stories, which have been collected mainly
in four volumes: <i>The Four Million, The
Voice of the City, Sixes and Sevens, and Waifs and Strays</i>. This story is full of irony and humour. The kidnappers are tortured by a ten year old
kid from Summit named Johnny and at the end the boy is handed over to his
father along with cash. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bill
and Sam</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sam is
the narrator of the story ‘The Ransom of Red Chief’; he along with Bill (his
companion) had a joint capital of six hundred dollars. They needed just two thousand dollars more to
pull off a fraudulent town-lot scheme in Western Illinois. So, they decided to kidnap someone and demand
the needed (two thousand dollars) amount as ransom. They both selected the victim who had only child
a prominent citizen and a wealthy man named Ebenezer Dorset. Two miles from Summit there was a cave, where
they stored provisions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> One
evening, after sunset they drove in a cart and went near Dorset’s house. The boy put up a fight with Bill and Sam like
a huge bear, but finally they managed to overcome his stubborn resistance and
got him in the bottom of the cart and took him to the cave.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Johnny
as ‘Red Chief’:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The cave
was surrounded with thick cedar tree, later he wore feathers in his hair and
called himself as ‘Red Chief’ and he also nick-named Sam as the Snake-eye the
Spy. He called Bill, Old Hank, the
Trapper; the Red chief’s captive and was going to be killed at the day break. The little boy seemed to be having the time
for his life. Later they had dinner, the
little boy Johnny filled his mouth with bacon (pig’s meat), bread and gravy,
and began to talk. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Why are
oranges round? I don’t like girls, a parrot can talk, but a monkey or fish
can’t. The little boy started to threaten Bill and Sam. Later, they went to sleep. Johnny often got up and shouted. In the early morning he sat on Bill’s chest
and tried to cut off his hair and skin with knife. The whole night, both Sam
and Bill lost their sleep. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ransom
Note from Bill and Sam:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Next
morning, Sam went to the top of the mountain to look at the village Summit,
from where kidnapped Johnny, but opposite to their expectations the village was
very quiet and the people of Summit was yet to discover the kidnap of the
kid. Meanwhile the kid started to
torture Bill in the cave. Sam rescued Bill after he returned to cave from the
top of the mountain. He suggested his
companion that they should send a letter to Dorset demanding for the ransom and
instructing him how to pay it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Bill
pleaded with Sam to reduce the amount to fifteen hundred dollars as he
suspected that his father wouldn’t be willing to pay a bigger amount for a
troublesome boy. They wrote a letter
demanding fifteen hundred dollars as ransom for returning his son.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Johnny’s
torture continued:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sam went
out to send a letter to Mr. Dorset demanding the amount. Now, the little kid asked Bill to play along
with him and asked him to get down on four legs. He rode on Bill’s back to the village
stockade, as a game. After posting the
letter, Sam returned back to the cave, but he found no one to be present in the
cave. He waited for Bill in the cave for
a long time and about half an hour he heard the bushes rustle. He saw Bill who looked tired and shabby. He said that the boy is gone and he sent him
home. Bill tried to get rid of the boy
but he followed him back to the cave. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Later
that night, Bill and Sam got a letter from Mr. Dorset stated that, instead of
agreeing the ransom he demanded money from Bill and Sam and to paid in cash(two
hundred and fifty dollars) to take his son off their hands. They should come
with the boy in the night time because the neighbors might object to his
returning home and might attack the kidnappers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Bill and
Sam wanted to get rid of the boy somehow and they decided to pay the amount
demanded by Mr. Dorset. They both paid
the amount (two hundred and fifty dollars) as demanded by the little boy’s
father and ran away from that town as much fast as they could, thinking that
the boy could catch up with them again. <br />
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Man Who Knew Too Much<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
-Alexander Baron</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Claud
Alexander Barron (1871-1948) British novelist was born in a working class
Jewish family. After school, he was
forced to forego a university scholarship to become a municipal clerk. He entered the Indian Civil Service in 1892
in Punjab. As an administrator, he had
varied experience as an officer in the Survey of India, as Chief Commissioner
of Delhi state and as Member of the Council of State 1921-24. His novel “From the City, From the Plough”,
the story of an English battalion in World War II was well received and widely
admired in England and America.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Private
Quelch:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The story
opens up with the description of the character named Private Quelch, who works
as the soldier of lowest rank in the army.
He was lean and tall, wearing horn-rimmed glasses and had a permanent
frown on his face. He was given the
nickname the ‘Professor’. At the first
chance, he began to lecture to anyone on anything much like a Professor. Hence he was aptly called the
‘Professor’. He looked like a professor
both in his appearance and conduct.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Perfect
Show off:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> At first
he was respected for his knowledge in all fields. He worked hard and gathered knowledge from
various sources, but he grabbed every opportunity to show off his knowledge. The narrator points out Private Quelch’s
first incident of interruption during the class handled by the sergeant on
Musketry (use of rifle). When he started with his lecture on the mechanism of a
Service Rifle and the velocity or speed at which the bullet leaves the rifle is
over two thousand feet per second, a voice interrupted saying two thousand four
hundred and forty feet per second.
Sergeant without any enthusiasm went on lecturing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When the
sergeant asked “You had any training before?” the professor answered “No
sergeant, it’s all a matter of intelligent reading.” Others in the army camp started to learn
about him and his ambition was to earn a Commission, which is the highest rank
in the army. He borrowed training
manuals and stayed up late at nights reading them</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Colleagues
Behavior:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He often
pointed out other’s mistakes and corrected them in the public. Whenever one of colleagues shone the
“Professor” outshone them with his lectures.
This was not liked by all. The
colleagues tried to hit him back with clumsy sarcasms and practical jokes but
he was never affected by them. One day,
they heard the drone of a plan flying high overhead. None of them could even see it in the glare
of the sun. Without even a glance upward
the Professor announced it is a North American Harvard Trainer. With utmost pride the Professor wanted to
show off his talent and knowledge to his colleagues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Corporal
Turnbull:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> He was a
young man who came back from Dunkirk with all his equipment correct. One day he was giving lecture on the hand
grenade. He lectured that the outside of
a grenade we can see large number of fragment to assist segmentation and by
that time a voice interrupted his lecture.
The Professor as usual interrupted him saying Forty four segments. Corporal did not like this. He gave the hand grenade to the professor and
asked him to give the lecture. The
Professor happily came forward and gave a good lecture on the hand
grenade. The squad listened to him with
a horrified kind of silence. Corporal
stood and watched his lecture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
Kind Revenge:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Corporal
Turnbull announced that he was asked by the ‘Platoon officer (lieutenant) to
nominate one from the squad for ---‘. He
paused and looked at the squad and most of them started to throw their glances
at Private Quelch who stood rigid.
Everyone thought that the Professor would be given a Commission. “—for permanent cookhouse duties and Corporal
have decided that Private Quelch is just the man for the job and everyone
enjoyed this joke. He was not at all put
out by this. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Through
the open doors of the canteen the squad, the other ranks of army and his
colleagues saw three cooks standing against the wall, and from the within came
a familiar voice. Later they recognized that
the voice belonged to the Professor who started his lecture about unscientific
and unhygienic method of peeling potatoes and vitamin values. Though he had lot of knowledge, he lacked
humility.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com27tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-71583362085495026572012-12-01T20:55:00.001-08:002012-12-01T21:45:30.828-08:00Richard Cory<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;"><b>American Lit (poem)</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;"><b>Richard Cory</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">Whenever Richard Cory went down town,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">We people on the pavement looked at him:</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">He was a gentleman from sole to crown,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 16px;">Clean-favored and imperially slim.</span></span></span><br />
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;" />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">And he was always quietly arrayed,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">And he was always human when he talked;</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">But still he fluttered pulses when he said,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">"Good Morning!" and he glittered when he walked.</span><br />
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;" />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">And he was rich, yes, richer than a king,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">And admirably schooled in every grace:</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">In fine -- we thought that he was everything</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">To make us wish that we were in his place.</span><br />
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;" />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">So on we worked and waited for the light,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">And went without the meat and cursed the bread,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">And Richard Cory, one calm summer night,</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">Went home and put a bullet in his head.</span><br />
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;" />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;"><b>Edwin Arlington Robinson</b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: museo-sans-1, museo-sans-2, sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px;"> </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: museo-sans-1, museo-sans-2, sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: museo-sans-1, museo-sans-2, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 19px; line-height: 23.766666412353516px;"> Overall Review</span></span><br />
<br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, 'Liberation Sans', FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px; list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 15px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">First Published:</strong> 1897</li>
<li style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Type of Work:</strong> Poem</li>
<li style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Genres:</strong> <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/genres/poetry" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Poetry</a></li>
<li style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Subjects:</strong> <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/united-states-americans" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">United States or Americans</a>, <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/suicide" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Suicide</a>, <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/nineteenth-century" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Nineteenth century</a>,<a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/depression-economic" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Depression, economic</a>, <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/upper-classes" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Upper classes</a>, <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/loneliness" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Loneliness</a>, <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/wealth" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Wealth</a>, <a href="http://www.enotes.com/lit/salem-on-literature/subjects/cities-towns" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">Cities or towns</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="article" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h2 style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-family: museo-sans-1, museo-sans-2, sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px; margin: 0px 0px 5px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Analysis</h2>
<div style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, 'Liberation Sans', FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px; margin-bottom: 10px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
“Richard Cory,” which first appeared in <em style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Children of the Night</em> and remains one of Robinson’s most popular poems, recalls the economic depression of 1893. At that time, people could not afford meat and had a diet mainly of bread, often day-old bread selling for less than freshly baked goods. This hard-times experience made the townspeople even more aware of Richard’s difference from them, so much so that they treated him as royalty.</div>
<div style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, 'Liberation Sans', FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px; margin-bottom: 10px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Although the people were surprised that Richard came to town dressed “quietly” and that he was “always human when he talked” (that is, he did not act superior), they nonetheless distanced themselves from him. This distance is suggested by the narrator’s words “crown,” “imperially,” “grace,” “fluttered pulses,” and “glittered.” The townspeople never stopped to consider why Richard dressed and spoke the way he did, why he came to town when everyone else was there, or even why he tried to make contact with them by saying “good morning.”</div>
<div style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin-bottom: 10px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Liberation Sans, FreeSans, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px;">Richard was wealthy, but (as his name hints) he was not rich at the life-core of himself. Despite his efforts at communal connection, Richard’s wealth isolated him from others. He was alone. If the townspeople wished they were in his place because of his wealth, he in turn wished he were one of them because they were rich in one another’s company. The townspeople failed to appreciate the value of their mutual support of one another, their nurturing communal togetherness. So one hot, </span><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.766666412353516px;">breeze less</span><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px;"> summer night (before the availability of electric fans or air conditioners), Richard lay awake, unable to sleep or to stop painful thoughts. Depressingly lonely, he ended his friendless life. The poem’s reader is supposed to understand what the townspeople did not understand about Richard’s suicide: that there was a price, in a human rather than in a monetary sense, that he paid for being perceived to be “richer than a king.”</span></span></div>
<div class="ref-list" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, 'Liberation Sans', FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.78333282470703px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h3 style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; font-family: museo-sans-1, museo-sans-2, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0px 0px 5px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">End Rhyme</span></b></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......In each stanza of "Richard Cory," the final syllable of the first line rhymes with the final syllable of the third, and the final syllable of the second line rhymes with the final syllable of the fourth. The first stanza illustrates the pattern.</span></div>
<div style="float: left; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Whenever Richard Cory went down<b>town</b>,</span></div>
<br style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;" /><div style="float: left; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">We people on the pavement looked at <b>him</b>;</span></div>
<br style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;" /><div style="float: left; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">He was a gentleman from sole to <b>crown</b>,</span></div>
<br style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;" /><div style="float: left; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Clean favored, and imperially <b>slim</b>.</span></div>
<div style="clear: none; display: inline; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; position: relative;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="Internal" style="border: none; color: #20929a;"></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span><b style="font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Internal Rhyme</span></b><span style="font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span><div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......Robinson also used internal rhyme in "Richard Cory." Following are examples.</span></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Wh<b>e</b>n<b>e</b>ver Richard Cory w<b>e</b>nt d<b>ow</b>nt<b>ow</b>n (line 1)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">To m<b>a</b>ke us w</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial Black;">i</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">sh that we were</span> <b><span style="font-family: Arial Black;">i</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">n h</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial Black;">i</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">s pl<b>a</b>ce (line 12)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">W<b>e</b>nt home and p<b>u</b>t a b<b>u</b>ll<b>e</b>t through his h<b>ea</b>d (line 16)</span></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3918013409863890191" name="Meter" style="border: none; color: #20929a;"></a><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Meter</span></b></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......Most of the lines in the poem are in <a href="http://www.cummingsstudyguides.net/xmeter.html#top" style="border: none; color: #20929a; text-decoration: initial;">iambic pentameter</a>. Lines 1-3 demonstrate this pattern:</span></div>
<div style="float: left; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......1..............2...............3................4................5</span></div>
<br style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;" /><div style="float: left; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">When <b>EV</b>..|..er <b>RICH</b>..|..ard <b>COR</b>..|..y <b>WENT</b>..|..down <b>TOWN</b>,</span></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......1.............2..............3.....................4..................5</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">We <b>PEO</b>..|..ple <b>ON</b>..|..the <b>PAVE</b>..|..ment <b>LOOKED</b>..|..at <b>HIM</b>;</span></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......1.............2..............3................4...................5</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">He <b>WAS</b>..|..a <b>GEN</b>..|..tle <b>MAN</b>..|..from <b>SOLE</b>..|..to <b>CROWN</b>,</span></div>
<div style="clear: both; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">.......1................2................3...........4............5</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Clean <b>FA</b>..|..vored <b>AND</b>..|..im <b>PER</b>..|..i <b>AL</b>..|..ly <b>SLIM</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>Figures of Speech</b></span><br />
<br />
<div style="clear: both; padding-top: 12px; position: relative;">
<u><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Alliteration</span></u></div>
<div style="float: left; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>W</b>henever Richard Cory <b>w</b>ent downtown (line 1)</span></div>
<br style="clear: both;" />
<div style="float: left; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>p</b>eo<b>p</b>le on the <b>p</b>avement (line 2)</span></div>
<br style="clear: both;" />
<div style="float: left; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>w</b>ish that <b>w</b>e <b>w</b>ere in his place (line 12)</span></div>
<br style="clear: both;" />
<div style="float: left; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>w</b>e <b>w</b>orked, and <b>w</b>aited</span></div>
<div style="float: left; overflow: hidden; position: relative; word-wrap: break-word;">
<u><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">Anaphora</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>And he was always</b> quietly arrayed,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;"><b>And he was always</b> human when he talked (lines 5-6)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica;">So on we worked, and waited for the light</span></div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3918013409863890191.post-49512210795428874172012-11-27T23:22:00.000-08:002012-11-27T23:22:01.374-08:00The Hound of the Baskervilles<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><b>The Hound of the Baskervilles</b></i></span><br />
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<h3 class="innerUnderlined" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(153, 153, 153); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; display: block; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 5px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Key Facts</h3>
<div style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 11px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 11px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">full title</b> · <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Hound of the Baskervilles</i></div>
<div style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 11px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 11px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">author</b> · Arthur Conan Doyle</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">type of work</b> · Novel</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">genre</b> · Mystery</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">language</b> · English</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">time and place written</b> · Returning from the Boer War in South Africa, Doyle wrote and published <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hound of the Baskervilles</i> in England in 1901.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">date of first publication</b> · 1901, serialized in <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Strand</i>; 1902, published by Newnes</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">publisher</b> · George Newnes, Ltd.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">narrator</b> · Dr. Watson</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">climax</b> · Holmes' secret plan comes to fruition when a guileless Sir Henry heads home across the moor, only to be attacked by the hound. Hindered by a thick fog and sheer fright, Holmes and Watson nonetheless shoot the beast and solve the mystery.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">protagonist</b> · Dr. Watson and Sherlock Holmes</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">antagonist</b> · Jack Stapleton</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">setting (time)</b> · 1889. Holmes notes that the date 1884, engraved on Dr. Mortimer's walking stick, is five years old.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">setting (place)</b> · The novel starts and ends in London, in Holmes' office at 221b Baker Street. Most of the rest of the novel takes place in Devonshire, at the imposing Baskerville Hall, the lonely moorlands, and the rundown Merripit House where Stapleton lives.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">point of view</b> · The mystery is told entirely from Watson's point of view, although the author regularly switches from straight narrative to diary to letters home.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">falling action</b> · Holmes explains the intricacies of the case; Sir Henry and Mortimer head off on vacation to heal Henry's nerves</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">tense</b> · Modulates from past (as in Watson's narration of London events) to recent past (as in Watson's diary and letters)</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">foreshadowing</b> · The deaths of some wild horses prefigure Stapleton's own death by drowning in the Grimpen mire. There is a sense in which all the clues serve as foreshadowing for later discoveries.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">tone</b> · At different times, the novel's tone is earnest, reverent (of Holmes), uncertain, and ominous.</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">themes</b> · Good and evil; natural and supernatural; truth and fantasy; classism, hierarchy, and entitlement</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">motifs</b> · Superstition and folk tales; disguised identities; the red herring</div>
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<b class="small-caps" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">symbols</b> · The moor (the mire); the hound</div>
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Plot Overview</h3>
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<i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Hound of the Baskervilles</i> opens with a mini mystery—Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson speculate on the identity of the owner of a cane that has been left in their office by an unknown visitor. Wowing Watson with his fabulous powers of observation, Holmes predicts the appearance of James Mortimer, owner of the found object and a convenient entrée into the baffling curse of the Baskervilles.</div>
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Entering the office and unveiling an 18th century manuscript, Mortimer recounts the myth of the lecherous Hugo Baskerville. Hugo captured and imprisoned a young country lass at his estate in Devonshire, only to fall victim to a marauding hound of hell as he pursued her along the lonesome moors late one night. Ever since, Mortimer reports, the Baskerville line has been plagued by a mysterious and supernatural black hound. The recent death of Sir Charles Baskerville has rekindled suspicions and fears. The next of kin, the duo finds out, has arrived in London to take up his post at Baskerville Hall, but he has already been intimidated by an anonymous note of warning and, strangely enough, the theft of a shoe.</div>
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Agreeing to take the case, Holmes and Watson quickly discover that Sir Henry Baskerville is being trailed in London by a mysterious bearded stranger, and they speculate as to whether the ghost be friend or foe. Holmes, however, announces that he is too busy in London to accompany Mortimer and Sir Henry to Devonshire to get to the bottom of the case, and he sends Dr. Watson to be his eyes and ears, insisting that he report back regularly.</div>
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Once in Devonshire, Watson discovers a state of emergency, with armed guards on the watch for an escaped convict roaming the moors. He meets potential suspects in Mr. Barrymore and Mrs. Barrymore, the domestic help, and Mr. Jack Stapleton and his sister Beryl, Baskerville neighbors.</div>
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A series of mysteries arrive in rapid succession: Barrymore is caught skulking around the mansion at night; Watson spies a lonely figure keeping watch over the moors; and the doctor hears what sounds like a dog's howling. Beryl Stapleton provides an enigmatic warning and Watson learns of a secret encounter between Sir Charles and a local woman named Laura Lyons on the night of his death.</div>
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Doing his best to unravel these threads of the mystery, Watson discovers that Barrymore's nightly jaunts are just his attempt to aid the escaped con, who turns out to be Mrs. Barrymore's brother. The doctor interviews Laura Lyons to assess her involvement, and discovers that the lonely figure surveying the moors is none other than Sherlock Holmes himself. It takes Holmes—hidden so as not to tip off the villain as to his involvement—to piece together the mystery.</div>
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Mr. Stapleton, Holmes has discovered, is actually in line to inherit the Baskerville fortune, and as such is the prime suspect. Laura Lyons was only a pawn in Stapleton's game, a Baskerville beneficiary whom Stapleton convinced to request and then miss a late night appointment with Sir Charles. Having lured Charles onto the moors, Stapleton released his ferocious pet pooch, which frightened the superstitious nobleman and caused a heart attack.</div>
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In a dramatic final scene, Holmes and Watson use the younger Baskerville as bait to catch Stapleton red-handed. After a late supper at the Stapletons', Sir Henry heads home across the moors, only to be waylaid by the enormous Stapleton pet. Despite a dense fog, Holmes and Watson are able to subdue the beast, and Stapleton, in his panicked flight from the scene, drowns in a marshland on the moors. Beryl Stapleton, who turns out to be Jack's harried wife and not his sister, is discovered tied up in his house, having refused to participate in his dastardly scheme.</div>
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Back in London, Holmes ties up the loose ends, announcing that the stolen shoe was used to give the hound Henry's scent, and that mysterious warning note came from Beryl Stapleton, whose philandering husband had denied their marriage so as to seduce and use Laura Lyons. Watson files the case closed.</div>
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Character List</h3>
<div class="content_txt" id="Sherlock Holmes" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="1" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sherlock Holmes</b> - The novel's protagonist. Holmes is the famed 221b Baker Street detective with a keen eye, hawked nose, and the trademark hat and pipe. Holmes is observation and intuition personified, and though he takes a bit of a back seat to Watson in this story, we always feel his presence. It takes his legendary powers to decipher the mystifying threads of the case.</div>
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dr. Watson</b> - The novel's other protagonist and narrator. Dr. Watson is the stout sidekick to Holmes and longtime chronicler of the detective's adventures. In<i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hound,</i> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;">Watson tries his hand at Holmes' game, expressing his eagerness to please and impress the master by solving such a baffling case. As sidekick and apprentice to Holmes, Watson acts as a foil for Holmes' genius and as a stand-in for us, the awestruck audience.</span><br />
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<div class="content_txt" id="Sir Henry Baskerville" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sir Henry Baskerville </b> - The late Sir Charles's nephew and closet living relative. Sir Henry is hale and hearty, described as "a small, alert, dark-eyed man about thirty years of age, very sturdily built." By the end of the story, Henry is as worn out and shell-shocked as his late uncle was before his death.</div>
<div class="content_txt" id="Sir Charles Baskerville" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="4" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sir Charles Baskerville </b> - The head of the Baskerville estate. Sir Charles was a superstitious man, and terrified of the Baskerville curse and his waning health at the time of his death. Sir Charles was also a well-known philanthropist, and his plans to invest in the regions surrounding his estate make it essential that Sir Henry move to Baskerville Hall to continue his uncle's good works.</div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><div class="content_txt" id="Sir Hugo Baskerville" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sir Hugo Baskerville </b> - A debaucherous and shadowy Baskerville ancestor, Sir Hugo is the picture of aristocratic excess, drinking and pursuing pleasures of the flesh until it killed him.</div>
<div class="content_txt" id="Mortimer" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="6" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Mortimer </b> - Family friend and doctor to the Baskervilles. Mortimer is a tall, thin man who dresses sloppily but is an all-around nice guy and the executor of Charles's estate. Mortimer is also a phrenology enthusiast, and he wishes and hopes to some day have the opportunity to study Holmes' head.</div>
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Mr. Jack Stapleton </b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"> - A thin and bookish-looking entomologist and one-time schoolmaster, Stapleton chases butterflies and reveals his short temper only at key moments. A calm façade masks the scheming, manipulative villain that Holmes and Watson come to respect and fear.</span><br />
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<div class="content_txt" id="Miss Stapleton" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Miss Stapleton </b> - Allegedly Stapleton's sister, this dusky Latin beauty turns out to be his wife. Eager to prevent another death but terrified of her husband, she provides enigmatic warnings to Sir Henry and Watson.</div>
<div class="content_txt" id="Mr. John Barrymore and Mrs. Eliza Barrymore" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="9" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Mr. John Barrymore and Mrs. Eliza Barrymore </b> - The longtime domestic help of the Baskerville clan. Earnest and eager to please, the portly Mrs. Barrymore and her gaunt husband figure as a kind of red herring for the detectives, in league with their convict brother but ultimately no more suspicious than Sir Henry.</div>
<div class="content_txt" id="Laura Lyons" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="10" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Laura Lyons </b> - A local young woman. Laura Lyons is the beautiful brunette daughter of "Frankland the crank," the local litigator who disowned her when she married against his will. Subsequently abandoned by her husband, the credulous Laura turns to Mr. Stapleton and Charles for help.</div>
<div class="content_txt" id="The convict" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 11px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="" name="11" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The convict</b> - A murderous villain, whose crimes defy description. The convict is nonetheless humanized by his association with the Barrymores. He has a rodent-like, haggardly appearance. His only wish is to flee his persecutors in Devonshire and escape to South America.</div>
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<a href="" name="12" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(38, 196, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #26c4ff; font-size: 12px; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Mr. Frankland</b> - Laura's father. Frankland is a man who likes to sue, a sort of comic relief with a chip on his shoulder about every infringement on what he sees as his rights. Villainized due to his one-time harsh treatment of Laura, Frankland is for the most part a laughable jester in the context of this story.</div>
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Chapter I: Mr. Sherlock Holmes</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Our first glimpse of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson is in their home office at 221b Baker Street in London. Watson examines a mysterious cane left in the office by an unknown visitor, and Holmes sits with his back facing his friend. Holmes asks Watson what he makes of it, and Watson declares that his friend must "have eyes in the back of [his] head," since he saw what he was doing. Holmes admits that he saw Watson's reflection in the coffee service, proving to Watson and us that he is an astute observer.</div>
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Watson offers up his theory as to the origin of the walking stick, declaring that the inscription, "To James Mortimer, M.R.C.S., from his friends of the C.C.H.," suggests an elderly doctor who was awarded the object after years of faithful service. Holmes encourages Watson's speculation, and the doctor continues, saying that the well-worn stick implies a country practitioner who walks about quite a bit. In addition, the C.C.H., he suggests, is probably the mark of "the something hunt," a local group to whom Mortimer provided some service.</div>
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Holmes congratulates Watson, and goes on to examine the cane himself as Watson basks in the glory of Holmes' compliment. However, Holmes quickly contradicts almost all of Watson's conclusions. Holmes suggests that while the owner is clearly a country practitioner, C.C.H. actually means Charing Cross Hospital. The cane was probably presented on the occasion of the man's retirement from the hospital, and only a young man would have retired from a successful city practice to move to a rural one. Holmes goes on to suggest that the man must possess a small spaniel, given the bite marks on the cane, and, he playfully announces, given the appearance of master and dog at their front door.</div>
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Mortimer arrives, introduces himself, and talks to the embarrassed Watson. An ardent phrenologist, Mortimer admires Holmes' skull and announces his desire to consult with "the second highest expert in Europe," a moniker which Holmes disputes.</div>
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Chapter II: The Curse of the Baskervilles</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Mortimer presents Holmes and Watson with a manuscript which the always observant Holmes had already noticed and dated at 1730. The document, dated 1742, Baskerville Hall, reveals the myth of the Baskerville curse. At the time of the "Great Revolution," Mortimer reads, Hugo Baskerville lorded over the Baskerville mansion in Devonshire. Sex crazed and lecherous, the infamous Hugo became obsessed with a local yeoman's daughter, whom he kidnapped one day. Trapped in an upstairs room, hearing the raucous drinking and carousing going on downstairs, the girl escaped with the help of an ivy-covered wall. She fled across the expansive moorlands outside. Enraged at finding that his captive escaped, Hugo made a deal with the devil and released his hounds in pursuit of the young girl. Hugo's companions had followed their drunken friend across the moorland, and came upon the bodies of both Hugo and his girl. Hugo had just had his throat ripped out by "a foul thing, a great, black beast." Ever since, Mortimer reports, the supernatural hound has haunted the family. The hound just recently killed Sir Charles Baskerville, the latest inhabitant of Baskerville Hall.</div>
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Mortimer unfolds the <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Devon County Chronicle</i> of May 14, reading about Sir Charles' philanthropy and the circumstances surrounding his death. Having remade his family fortune in South African colonial ventures, Charles returned two years ago to the family estate and gave extensively to the local population. The chronicle mentions the myth only to discount it, citing the testimony of Sir Charles' servants, Mr. Barrymore and Mrs. Barrymore, and that of Mortimer himself. Charles was found dead, the paper reports, at the site of his nightly walk down the so-called Yew Alley, which borders the haunted moorlands. Suspicious facts include Charles' apparent dawdling at the gate to the alley, and his footsteps down the alley itself, which indicated tiptoeing or running. But the paper points out Charles' poor health and the coroner's conclusion that the man died of a heart attack. The article goes on to insist that the next of kin, Sir Henry Baskerville, should come to take his uncle's post and continue his philanthropy.</div>
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Mortimer interrupts the account, however, to indicate that those are the publicly-known facts. Off the record, he admits that Sir Charles' poor health was a result of his fear of the family curse, and that he himself had suggested a sojourn in London to ease Sir Charles' nerves. Finally, Mortimer announces that the scene of the crime contained, in addition to Sir Charles' tiptoeing steps, "the footprints of a gigantic hound."</div>
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Chapters III–IV</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Chapter III: The Problem</h4>
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Holmes, excited by such a mysterious case, asks for more details. As it turns out, the paw prints indicated that the dog had not approached the body. High hedges and two locked gates bordered the Yew Alley. Mortimer suggests that the death was the result of some supernatural evil, and he describes his own interviews with locals, who had seen a spectral hound roaming the moors. The superstitious Mortimer only came to Holmes to ask what to do with Sir Henry, the sole heir, set to arrive at Waterloo Station in one hour. He mentions another heir, Sir Charles's brother Roger, but points out that he is presumed dead in South America. As for Sir Henry, Mortimer is afraid should he set up shop in Devonshire, but he knows that the county is counting on continued Baskerville philanthropy.</div>
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Holmes promises to consider the matter, telling Mortimer to pick up Henry at the station and bring him to the office the next morning. The detective dismisses Mortimer and Watson and settles down to contemplate the situation, ruminating in his typical fashion over a bag of Bradley's strongest shag tobacco.</div>
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Later that night, Watson returns to find the office atmosphere thick with smoke: as Holmes suggests, "a concentrated atmosphere helps a concentration of thought." Holmes surprises Watson by guessing he has been at his club and unveils a map of the Baskerville moorlands. Holmes indicates his inclination to go through all the other possibilities before falling back on the supernatural one, and he speculates on the relevant questions. Given his infirmity and fear of the moor, Holmes wonders whom Charles was waiting for at the gate. The change in footprints, Holmes suggests, indicates running and not tiptoeing. Holmes also points out that Sir Charles was running in exactly the wrong direction—away from his house and any help he might find. The duo sets aside the case and Holmes takes up his violin.</div>
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Chapter IV: Sir Henry Baskerville</h4>
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The next morning, Mortimer and the young Henry Baskerville arrive at 221b Baker Street. Though sturdy and weather-beaten, Sir Henry's expression showed that he was a gentleman. Just twenty-four hours in London, Sir Henry has already gotten involved in the mystery—he received an anonymous note of warning when he arrived at his hotel. Said the note: "As you value your life, or your reason, keep away from the moor." A few facts stand out: the address is on a plain envelope and printed in rough writing, and the note itself is composed with words cut out of a newspaper, except for the word moor. Holmes establishes that no one could have known where to reach Sir Henry, so the writer must be following him. Holmes quickly assesses the typeface and discerns that the words were cut out from yesterday's <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Times.</i> He goes on to suggest that the culprit used a pair of short-bladed nail scissors, since the longer words are cut with two snips, and that the word moor was handwritten because the author could not find it in print.</div>
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Astounded, the others listen on intently. Holmes proceeds: the author must be an educated man, since only the well-educated read the <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Times.</i> As such, the roughly written address suggests the writer was trying to disguise his or her handwriting, thus, the writer must have cursive that is recognizable. In addition, the author must have been in a hurry, since the words are glued carelessly onto the paper.</div>
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Dr. Mortimer, suddenly skeptical, questions Holmes' guess work, and the Holmes retorts that his methodology involves weighing probabilities and deciding on the likeliest solution. To prove it, he points out that the spluttered writing suggests a lack of ink, undoubtedly the result of a hotel pen, and not a private one. Holmes even asserts that an investigation of hotel garbage around Charing Cross, where the letter was postmarked, should yield the torn-up copy of the <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Times.</i></div>
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Announcing that he cannot glean anything else from the letter, the detective asks Henry whether anything else unusual has happened. Apparently, when Henry put a new pair out to be shined, his boot was lost or stolen. Dismissing the incident, Holmes agrees to fill Henry in on the curse of the Baskervilles. The group debates whether the warning suggests a friend eager to protect the baronet or an enemy intent on scaring him off. Henry announces his intention to go to Baskerville Hall. After inviting the detectives to lunch later that day, he leaves.</div>
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As soon as Sir Henry and Mortimer are out the door, Holmes leaps into action, intent on trailing the baronet to spot the letter writer whom Holmes suspects is trailing Sir Henry. Sure enough, the stakeout reveals a suspicious stranger in a cab, but the moment Watson spies his bushy black beard, the villain hurries off. The spy, Holmes suggests, is a worthy rival given his choice of a cab, a supremely well-suited getaway car. Holmes own performance, by contrast, was sub- par: he let the spy know that he was seen. The detective does announce that he has caught the cab's number, 2704, and directs Watson into a nearby messenger office. Once inside, Holmes greets the manager, a former client, and asks for the man's son Cartwright's help. Holmes instructs Cartwright to inspect the garbage of all the hotels in the Charing Cross region, in search of the mutilated <i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Times.</i>Meanwhile, he tells Watson, they will investigate cab number 2704 before meeting Sir Henry for lunch.</div>
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Chapters V–VI</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Chapter V: Three Broken Threads</h4>
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Arriving at Sir Henry's hotel, Holmes examines the register. Tricking the clerk into thinking he knows the two names added since Sir Henry, he gleans information that excludes the two from suspicion. So, the detective concludes, the watcher has not settled in Henry's hotel, and as such, wants very much to see but not to be seen.</div>
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Heading upstairs, the pair runs into a flustered Sir Henry, enraged at the theft of a second boot, this time an old one. Denouncing the hotel staff, Sir Henry is surprised at Holmes' suggestion that the thefts may have something to do with the case.</div>
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At lunch, Holmes, Watson, Henry, and Mortimer discuss Sir Henry's decision to go to Devonshire, and Holmes assents given the extreme improbability of unmasking the stalker in crowded London. Holmes asks if there is not anyone up at Devonshire with a full black beard, and learns that the butler, Mr. Barrymore, fits that description. Intent on assessing whether Barrymore is at home or in London, Holmes sends a telegraph to Mr. Barrymore that will be delivered to his hand or else returned to sender. Barrymore, Mortimer relates, stood to inherit 500 pounds and a cushy, work-free setup upon Charles' death. Asking about other heirs and beneficiaries, Holmes learns that Mortimer himself received 1000 pounds, and Sir Henry got 740,000. The next in line, Mortimer states, is a couple named Desmond, distant cousins. Holmes declares that Sir Henry needs a more attentive bodyguard at Baskerville Hall than Mortimer. Citing previous commitments in town, Holmes declines to go himself and surprises everyone by suggesting that Watson accompany the baronet. Holmes insists that Watson keep him updated. While they are getting ready to leave for their office, they are surprised by a cry from Sir Henry. Diving under a cabinet, Henry discovers the first boot he lost (the new one) despite the fact that Mortimer searched the lunchroom earlier that afternoon. The waiter, when asked, denies any knowledge of who placed the boot under a cabinet.</div>
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Back at 221b Baker Street, the detectives try to piece together the threads of the case, but they soon hear by wire that Barrymore is indeed in Devonshire and that young Cartwright has not found the mutilated newspaper. However, the cab number proves useful—the cabman himself, irked at what he assumes is a complaint, arrives at the office. Holmes assures the man that he just contacted the cab company to get some information, and promises him half a sovereign if he cooperates. Holmes gets the man's name and asks about his mysterious morning fare. The cabman announces that the fare, calling himself Sherlock Holmes, was nondescript and ordered to him to do just what the detectives saw. Amused at his adversary's wit, Holmes is nonetheless annoyed that this third thread of the mystery has snapped.</div>
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Chapter VI: Baskerville Hall</h4>
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On the morning of their departure, Holmes offers Watson some advice, suggesting that the doctor report facts only, and not conjectures. Holmes also announces that he has eliminated Desmond as a suspect, but that Watson should keep a close watch on all Henry's other intimates, including the Barrymores, Sir Henry's groom, the local farmers, Mrs. Stapleton and Mrs. Stapleton, and Mr. Frankland of Lafter Hall. Assuring that Watson has his gun and that Sir Henry will never go out alone, Holmes bids the group adieu.</div>
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On the trip, Watson chats with Mortimer and Henry, while the baronet admires the scenery of his birthplace. Soon, the group spots the fabled moorland, a gray, dream-like expanse. Observing Sir Henry's exultation, Watson decides that this New World traveler is indeed "of that long line of high-blooded, fiery, and masterful men," a good enough man to brave the Baskerville curse.</div>
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At the station, the group is met by a pair of gun-toting police officers, on guard for an escaped con, and by a set of Baskerville servants. The ride to the hall offers a beautiful scenic view, but always with the foreboding moor in the background. Asking about the armed guards, the group learns from the coachman that a dastardly criminal, Selden, the Notting Hill murderer, just recently escaped from prison. Sobered and silent, the party finally reaches Baskerville Hall.</div>
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As Barrymore and his wife introduce themselves and start taking down the baggage, Mortimer announces his intention to head home for supper. Once inside, Watson and Sir Henry learn of the Barrymores' intention to leave Henry's service as soon as he gets settled. Citing their sadness and fear at Charles' death, the Barrymores admit that they will never feel relaxed at Baskerville Hall. They also announce their intention to establish a business with the money inherited from Sir Charles.</div>
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Later on at dinner, Sir Henry says he understands his uncle's ill health and anxiety given the somber and scary aspect of much of the hall. Once in bed, Watson has trouble sleeping, and he hears a woman's sobbing.</div>
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Chapter VII: The Stapletons of Merripit House</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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The next morning, Watson and Sir Henry discuss the advantages of the Baskerville mansion, but Watson nonetheless mentions the crying he heard the previous evening. Sir Henry admits that he also heard the sobbing, but that he thought it was just a dream. Asking Barrymore about the incident, Watson notices that the butler gets flustered. He later learns that the man's suggestion that it could not have been his wife crying is a lie—Watson sees the woman's red and swollen eyes. Watson wonders at the butler's lie and at the woman's tears, speculating that perhaps Barrymore was the bearded stranger back in London. He decides to make sure Holmes' telegraph was actually delivered into the butler's own hands, so he takes a long walk out to the Grimpen postmaster. Questioning the postmaster's delivery boy, Watson learns that the telegram was actually delivered to Mrs. Barrymore, who claimed that her husband was busy upstairs. The boy did not see Barrymore himself. Confused by the back and forth of the investigation, Watson wishes Holmes was free to come to Devonshire.</div>
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Just then, a small stranger carrying a butterfly net comes up, calling Watson by his name. Mr. Stapleton of Merripit House introduces himself and excuses his casual country manners. Mortimer had pointed Watson out, and Stapleton only meant to accompany the doctor on his walk home. Stapleton asks after Sir Henry, and expresses his concern that the baronet should continue his uncle's good works. He also remarks at the silliness of the local superstition, at the same time suggesting that there must have been something to scare the weak-hearted uncle to death. Watson is surprised that Stapleton knew of Charles' condition, but the naturalist explains that Mortimer clued him in. The doctor is equally off-put by Stapleton's subsequent mention of Sherlock Holmes, but he quickly realizes that his friend's celebrity status has preceded him, and tells the inquisitive Stapleton that Holmes is occupied in London. Watson refuses to tell Stapleton anything specific about the case, and the naturalist lauds his discretion.</div>
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Walking alongside the moor, Stapleton points out the mystery and danger of the place, highlighting the great Grimpen mire, a stretch where a sort of quicksand can suck up either man or beast. Just then, the two spot a pony being swallowed up by the sand, even though, as Stapleton brags, the pony knows his way around well enough not to get into trouble. As Stapleton dissuades Watson from trying his luck, the two hear a low, sad moan that the locals suspect is the howling of the hound of the Baskervilles. Stapleton also points out some low, stone buildings along the moor: the residences of Neolithic man.</div>
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Suddenly, Stapleton goes bounding off after a butterfly, and Watson finds himself face to face with Miss Stapleton, who has walked up unnoticed. A stunning, dark beauty—the exact opposite of her brother—she cuts off Watson's introduction by telling him to go back to London and insisting that Watson say nothing to her brother.</div>
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Reappearing at Watson's side, Mr. Stapleton discovers that his sister had thought Watson was Sir Henry, and proper introductions are made. The three make their way to Merripit House, and Watson remarks that the spot seems a strange and melancholy place for the pair to choose.</div>
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Stapleton suggests that they get along fine, though his sister seems unconvinced. The naturalist tells Watson of a previous career as a schoolmaster up north, but insists that he prefers the opportunity the moors provide for collecting and inspecting insects. Watson leaves and Stapleton asks that he tell Sir Henry of his intention to pay a visit. On the way home, Watson encounters Miss Stapleton, who has run to catch up with him. She tells him to forget her warning, though Watson presses her for more details. Miss Stapleton tries to play off her outburst, claiming to be concerned about the curse and eager not to contradict her brother, who wants a charitable Baskerville in residence. Watson is more confused than ever.</div>
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Chapter VIII–IX</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Chapter VIII: First Report of Dr. Watson</h4>
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From this point on, Watson tells us, the story will be told as it was reported to Holmes himself: in letter form. Watson describes the loneliness and ancient feel of the moor. He goes on to relate the status of the escaped con, who has not been seen in two weeks. The relieved locals assume he has fled the area, since there is no food to sustain him on the moor.</div>
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Watson also alludes to a budding romantic relationship between Sir Henry and Miss Stapleton, whom he characterizes as exotic. Though Watson thinks her brother is a bit of a wet blanket by contrast, he nonetheless admits that he has hidden passions. He points out that Mr. Stapleton expresses disapproval of Sir Henry's interest in his sister.</div>
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Watson goes on to relate his meeting with another neighbor, Mr. Frankland of Lafter Hall. Mr. Frankland is a good-natured if quarrelsome man, who likes to sue people for the sake of suing. Watson notes his interest in astronomy and the telescope atop his house, often used for searching the moorlands for the escaped convict.</div>
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When Watson mentions that telegraph did not make it into Barrymore's hands, and he describes Sir Henry's questioning of his butler. Barrymore admits that he did not receive the wire from the postman himself, but insists that he was indeed at home that day. When Barrymore wonders what all the questions are about, Sir Henry appeases him by giving him a box of old clothes.</div>
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Watson reiterates his suspicions that Barrymore, whose wife he has once again been seen crying, is up to no good. Late one night, Watson is woken by the sound of footsteps outside his door. Peeking out, he sees Barrymore, silhouetted by a candle he is holding, skulking down the hall. As Watson follows him, he sees the butler go up to a window, and hold his candle aloft as if signaling to someone. Suddenly, he lets out an impatient groan and puts out the light. Watson makes it back to his room just in time, and later that night hears a key turning in a lock. Watson offers no speculation, leaving the theorizing to Holmes.</div>
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Chapter IX: (Second Report of Dr. Watson) The Light Upon the Moor</h4>
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Having investigated the window that Barrymore used, Watson determines that this particular window has the best view of the moor. Watson suggests his suspicion of a love affair between Barrymore and a country lass, which would explain his wife's crying. Informing Sir Henry, who claims to have heard Barrymore's late night activity, Watson plots a late-night stakeout to catch Barrymore in the act.</div>
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Meanwhile, Henry's romance with Miss Stapleton hits a rough patch. Henry, going out to meet her, excuses Watson of his duties as bodyguard, lest the doctor turn into a chaperone as well. All the same, Watson trails the baronet and sees him walking with Miss Stapleton. As Henry bends in for a kiss, Stapleton arrives on the scene, yelling and carrying on inexplicably. As the Stapletons depart, Watson reveals himself to Henry, who wonders whether Stapleton might be crazy. He things himself a worthy match for Miss Stapleton, though he admits that on this occasion she refused to talk of love and only offered mysterious warnings. Later that day, Stapleton meets Sir Henry at home to apologize for his over- protective nature, and invites him to dinner next Friday.</div>
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Meanwhile, Watson and Henry's stakeout takes two nights of vigilance. On the second night, the two hear Barrymore and follow him to his window. Watson watches as Sir Henry confronts him. Shocked and bewildered, the butler tries to furnish an excuse, but Sir Henry insists on the truth. As Barrymore waffles, protesting, Watson goes to the window, figuring that another person out on the moor must be matching Barrymore's signal. Sure enough, a light shows up across the moor, but the butler refuses to talk, even at the expense of his job. Suddenly, Mrs. Barrymore arrives and explains everything. The light on the moor is a signal from the escaped convict, who turns out to be her brother. The Barrymores have been feeding and clothing the man so he does not starve out on the moor. Excusing the Barrymores, Henry and Watson determine to go out and capture the convict, so as to protect the community. On their way toward the light, though, the pair hears the loud moaning of a wolf and wonders whether they should continue their adventure. Watson even admits that the locals suspect the braying to be the call of the Hound of the Baskervilles.</div>
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Frightened but determined, Sir Henry insists they proceed. When the pair finally reaches the flickering candlelight, they spy a small crevice in some rocks where candle and convict are carefully hidden. The convict turns out to be all the two might have expected: haggard, unkempt, and animal-like. When Watson moves in for the kill, though, the man manages to escape. Just then, as they make their way home, Watson catches sight of a lone figure, silhouetted against the moor. But as suddenly as the tall, mysterious figure appeared, the figure is gone.</div>
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Chapters X–XI</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Chapter X: Extract from the Diary of Dr. Watson</h4>
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Musing on the mysteries of the case, Watson dismisses the supernatural explanation but admits that his common sense offers no obvious solution. Where might a living and breathing hound hide by day, and who is the mysterious shadow out on the moor? Watson determines to find out what this man might know and whether he is the same person who provided the warning back in London.</div>
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Meanwhile, Sir Henry argues with Barrymore over the chase of his brother-in-law, Selden. Watson and Henry worry that the man is a public danger. Nonetheless, Barrymore assures them that Selden is just biding his time until a ship arrives for South America, and that he will not commit any more crimes. Barrymore's betters agree not to tell the police, and Barrymore thanks them by offering another clue. Apparently, Sir Charles went to the gate on the night he died to meet a woman, and Barrymore tells of his wife's discovery of a charred letter, signed L.L., requesting the late-night meeting.</div>
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The next day, Watson learns from Mortimer that Laura Lyons, daughter of "Frankland the crank," lives nearby in Coombe Tracey. Mortimer goes on to explain that Laura married an artist against her father's will and that both husband and father have since abandoned her. In the meantime, both Stapleton and Sir Charles have come to her aid by offering her alms.</div>
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As for the silhouette on the moor, Watson learns from Barrymore that Selden has seen him, too. He appears to be a gentleman, and he lives in one of the Neolithic huts along the moor, getting his food from a young boy.</div>
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Chapter XI: The Man on the Tor</h4>
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Deciding that an informal visit might be the most productive, Watson leaves Sir Henry at home and heads for Coombe Tracey. At Laura Lyon's apartment, Watson meets the beautiful brunette and announces his interest in the matter of Sir Charles' death. Suspicious but finally cooperative, Laura admits that Sir Charles supported her financially, and that she wrote to him once or twice. But when Watson presses the issue, she claims to have had very little to do with him personally, and that it was Stapleton who told him of her situation.</div>
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Watson goes on to mention the burned letter, and Laura finally admits to having written it. The lateness of the hour and the strangeness of the location, she claims, resulted from her just having heard of Charles' imminent departure and her fear that a late-night meeting might look bad. When Watson asks what happened that night, Laura claims to have missed the appointment, but she refuses to say why. All she will disclose is the letter's content: an appeal for alms from Sir Charles to get her out of a bad marriage. Laura also adds that in the interim, she has gotten help from someone else.</div>
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Frustrated, Watson takes his leave, wondering what Laura might be holding back. Meanwhile, the doctor determines to search for the mysterious stranger on the moor. Watson is particularly determined because he wants to show up his master, Holmes. On his way home, Watson bumps into Mr. Frankland and agrees to have a glass of wine with him. As Frankland prattles on about his various legal matters, Watson realizes that the man has unwittingly spotted the stranger on the moor, thinking him to be the escaped convict. The man Frankland saw had a young boy bringing him food, just as Barrymore described the stranger's setup. Watson prods Frankland for more information, and just then, the man spots someone out on the moor and goes for his telescope. Sure enough, they see a young boy who is glancing behind him as if to make sure no one is watching.</div>
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Watson declines Frankland's offer for another drink and makes his way to where he saw the boy. Finding the stranger's hut, Watson decides to wait for his return. Examining the contents of the hut, the doctor discovers a note that says he has gone to Coombe Tracey and he realizes that he is also being followed. Finally, Watson hears footsteps outside and a sudden greeting.</div>
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Chapters XII–XIII</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Chapter XII: Death on the Moor</h4>
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Watson quickly realizes that Holmes is the man greeting him. Watson wonders how the detective found the hut, and why was he hiding on the moor. Holmes explains that he saw Watson's brand of cigarette stubbed out near the hut. As for Holmes' presence in the hut, on the moor, in Devonshire, the detective explains that he hid so the enemies would not know of his direct involvement. Holmes lied to Watson, he says, so that no one would discover him, should Watson decide to compare notes or bring his master some food. Suddenly upset that his reports went to waste, Watson learns that Holmes actually had them forwarded and has kept them close at hand.</div>
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While recounting the day's visit to Coombe Tracey, Watson learns from Holmes that Laura and Mr. Stapleton share a close relationship and that Beryl, the woman masquerading as Stapleton's sister is actually his wife. Shocked at these revelations, the doubting Watson demands proof, and Holmes tells of his own investigation into Stapleton's past, and his career as a schoolmaster up north. Stapleton, it becomes clear, is the enemy they have been after, and he has been using his wife-cum-sister to get at Sir Henry and Laura Lyons. He seduced Lyons and used her to lure Charles onto the moor.</div>
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Watson and Holmes decide to visit Laura Lyons again, to tell her of Stapleton's ruse and hopefully, to shift her loyalties. Meanwhile, a sudden scream is heard on the moor, and, upon investigation, they discover the body of Sir Henry or what appears to be a body in his clothes. As it turns out, Barrymore delivered a bunch of old clothes to the convict. The hound had sniffed Henry's stolen boot back in London and had attacked the right clothes on the wrong man. Just then, Stapleton shows up, assuming that the dead man is Henry. When he discovers the truth, he stammers: "Who-who's this?" When Watson wonders why the naturalist assumed it was Sir Henry, Stapleton admits it was because he had asked him to come over. Holmes defuses the situation by suggesting that the convict, Selden, must have just fallen and broken his neck, and goes on to tell Stapleton he intends to go home tomorrow, since he is not interested in the myths that plague the particular case. Suspicious but reassured, Stapleton goes home and the detectives head for the Hall.</div>
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Chapter XIII: Fixing the Nets</h4>
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Walking and talking on their way home, Watson and Holmes marvel at the self- control of their enemy, who held his tongue even after it became clear his hound had killed the wrong man. They wonder, now that the villain has seen Holmes, whether he will become more cautious or more desperate. Watson suggests that they arrest him at once, but Holmes reminds him that they have yet to establish the proof they need for a conviction.</div>
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Holmes has hope for tomorrow's interview with Lyons, but he also claims to have another plan in the works. He tells Watson not to tell Henry of Selden's death, and insists that he excuse himself from the dinner he and Henry were to attend at Stapleton's the next day.</div>
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After some light conversation with Sir Henry and the sad announcement of Selden's death to his sister, Holmes spies a portrait on the wall and learns that the thin cavalier in question is none other than Hugo Baskerville himself. Later that night, Holmes explains his interest to Watson, demonstrating the remarkable similarity between Hugo and Stapleton, thus establishing Stapleton's motive: as a Baskerville relative, Stapleton has designs on the inheritance.</div>
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The next morning, Holmes handles the removal of Selden's body and tells Sir Henry to keep his dinner appointment with Stapleton, excusing himself and Watson. Holmes tells the baronet that he and his friend are going to London, and though Sir Henry is understandably alarmed, Holmes tells him to trust him. He also insists that the baronet deliver the same message to Stapleton and that he walk home alone across the moor after dinner.</div>
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Later that day, at the train station, Holmes sends Cartwright back to London with instructions to send a wire from London, in Holmes' name, to Sir Henry. Holmes hears from another man, Lestrade, whom he intends to enlist later that night.</div>
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Meanwhile, Holmes and Watson head over to Laura Lyons' place, and Holmes tells her of Stapleton's secret marriage. Shocked and visibly upset, Laura demands proof, and Holmes produces a photo of husband and wife. Laura spills the beans: Stapleton had offered to marry her if she got a divorce, an endeavor that would require Sir Charles' assistance. The naturalist wrote Laura's letter to Charles and then insisted she miss the appointment, suggesting that he himself would pay the expenses. Stapleton even convinced Laura to keep quiet, telling her that she might get in trouble</div>
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Chapters XIV–XV</h3>
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Summary</h5>
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Chapter XIV: The Hound of the Baskervilles</h4>
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The three detectives approach Merripit House, and Holmes insists that they all tiptoe so they are not heard. Hidden behind some rocks, the group observes Sir Henry and Mr. Stapleton chatting over coffee. Sir Henry seems nervous, perhaps pondering the long walk home across the moor.</div>
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Just then, Stapleton gets up and heads outside, letting himself into a small outhouse where the hidden group hears some strange scuffling. Meanwhile, a thick fog starts to settle and spread across the moor, and the group gets nervous as the visibility gets worse and worse. Once the fog engulfs the path from Merripit to Baskerville Hall, the detectives will not be able to watch Henry's walk home, nor protect him when the hound attacks.</div>
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Once Henry finally gets going, the fog covers the path, and the detectives hear the hound before they see it. When it emerges from the mist, the hound turns out to be an immense, iridescent, fire-breathing beast, the very picture of the Baskerville myth. Stunned, the detectives only shoot one round of bullets as the hound nips at Henry's heels. But the shots do not kill the beast, and it leaps at Henry's throat. Fortunately, Holmes manages to unload five more rounds at just the right moment, and the hound collapses.</div>
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Examining the baronet, they discover no injuries. Getting a chance to finally examine the animal, the detectives determine it to be a bloodhound-mastiff mix, as big as a lion and covered with phosphorous to make it glow. Rushing back to the house, the detectives discover Mrs. Stapleton bound and gagged.</div>
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Waking up, Mrs. Stapleton makes sure Sir Henry is safe and the hound is dead, and then informs the detectives of her husband's hiding place in the Grimpen mire, the deadly marshland where he kept his hound. Deciding that the fog is too thick to pursue the villain through the treacherous mire, Holmes and Watson head back to Baskerville Hall with Sir Henry.</div>
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The next day, Mrs. Stapleton leads them through the mire, eager to capture her abusive husband. The Stapletons had placed sticks in the mire to mark the spots where it was safe to walk, and the detectives follow the path until they come upon an object, partially submerged. It turns out to be Sir Henry's black boot, which Stapleton used to set his hound on Henry's trail and then threw to the ground as he made his escape. As for Stapleton himself, his footprints are nowhere to be found beyond a certain point, and the detectives decide that the great Grimpen mire has engulfed him. When they reach his lair, they discover the place where the hound was kept, hidden away but still audible for miles around. The villain brought his hound to Merripit only that last day, so dangerous was the risk of discovery. The detectives also find the phosphorous used to make the beast glow—scary enough to frighten Sir Charles to death.</div>
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Chapter XV: A Retrospection</h4>
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Back in London, Henry and Mortimer call on the detectives to get the full rundown of the confusing case. Holmes explains that Stapleton was actually the son of Roger Baskerville, Charles' younger brother who moved to South America and was presumed dead. Stapleton, or Sir Roger Baskerville, Jr., lived in South America and married Beryl Garçia of Costa Rica, the dark and lisping beauty masquerading as his sister. Having embezzled public money, Roger fled to England, changed his name, and established a school up north. When the school folded, Roger had to take off again, this time heading to Devonshire where he had heard of his stake in a large inheritance. Having made friends with Sir Charles, Roger heard of the myth of the hound and of Charles' bad heart.</div>
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To get the superstitious Charles out alone on the moor, Stapleton tried to enlist his wife, but she refused. He happened, however, to meet Laura Lyons, and he told her he would marry her if she got a divorce. Convincing her to get the necessary money from Charles, he made her miss the late-night appointment and unleashed his hound. Though Laura suspected Stapleton, she protected him out of love.</div>
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Once Henry arrived on the scene, Stapleton took his untrustworthy wife with him to London, where he trailed the baronet and she tried to warn him. Stapleton also made a point of stealing one of Henry's shoes to give his hound the baronet's scent. But the first boot he stole was brand new, not yet worn by Sir Henry and unsuitable for its intended purpose.</div>
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Holmes mentions that Mrs. Stapleton's letter smelled of perfume, and that the suggestion of a gentlewoman made him think right from the start of the Stapletons. Going on to investigate and ultimately establish Stapleton as the enemy, Holmes nonetheless needed proof, so he used Henry as bait to catch Stapleton red-handed. Holmes apologizes for using the baronet, but insists that it was necessary.</div>
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Mrs. Stapleton, for her part, both loved and feared her husband, and she was willing to warn Henry but not to reveal her husband's involvement. Stapleton himself encouraged the romance but could not help a jealous outburst the day he saw the two talking intimately.</div>
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On the night Henry came to dinner, Mrs. Stapleton realized her husband had his hound in the outhouse, and she confronted him. He revealed his relationship with Laura, and, when she reacted, he tied her up and gagged her. The only other loose end, as Holmes sees it, is just how Stapleton intended to claim the fortune. Though Holmes speculates that perhaps he would claim it from South America, he admits that he cannot predict behavior in the future. Henry heads off for a vacation with Mortimer to calm his nerves.</div>
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Prithvi Rajhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01298199342045177820noreply@blogger.com0