Allied Paper – III – Myth and Literature - University of Madras : Revised Syllabus BA English [Sem 3]

Unit – 2: Greek and Roman Mythology

Allied Paper III – MYTH AND LITERATURE

Unit 2: Greek and Roman Mythology

1.      Hercules –(Cleaning of Aegean Tables, Atlas and Hercules)

Hercules was the greatest of the mythological Greek heroes. He was famous for his incredible strength, courage, and intelligence. Hercules is actually his Roman name. The Greeks called him Heracles.

Birth of Hercules

 Hercules was a demigod. This means that he was half god, half human. His father was Zeus, king of the gods, and his mother was Alcmene, a beautiful human princess. Even as a baby Hercules was very strong. When the goddess Hera, Zeus' wife, found out about Hercules, she wanted to kill him. She snuck two large snakes into his crib. However, baby Hercules grabbed the snakes by the neck and strangled them with his bare hands

Growing Up

Hercules mother, Alcmene, tried to raise him like a regular kid. He went to school like mortal children, learning subject like math, reading, and writing. However, one day he got mad and hit his music teacher on the head with his lyre and killed him by accident. Hercules went to live in the hills where he worked as a cattle herder. He enjoyed the outdoors. One day, when Hercules was eighteen years old, a massive lion attacked his herd. Hercules killed the lion with his bare hands. Hercules is Tricked Hercules married a princess named Megara. They had a family and were living a happy life. This made the goddess Hera angry. She tricked Hercules into thinking his family was a bunch of snakes. Hercules killed the snakes only to realize they were his wife and kids. He was very sad and riddled with guilt.

Oracle of Delphi

 Hercules wanted to get rid of his guilt. He went to get advice from the Oracle of Delphi. The Oracle told Hercules that he must serve King Eurystheus for 10 years and do any task the king asked of him. If he did this, he would be forgiven and wouldn't feel guilty any more. The tasks the king gave him are called the Twelve Labors of Hercules.

The Twelve Labors of Hercules

Each of the Twelve Labors of Hercules is a story and adventure all to itself. The king did not like Hercules and wanted him to fail. Each time he made the tasks more and more difficult. The final task even involved traveling to the Underworld and bringing back the fierce three-headed guardian Cerberus. Slay the Lion of Nemea Slay the Lernean Hydra Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis Capture the Boar of Erymanthia Clean the entire Augean stables in one day Slay the Stymphalian Birds Capture the Bull of Crete Steal the Mares of Diomedes Get the girdle from the Queen of the Amazons, Hippolyta Take the cattle from the monster Geryon Steal apples from the Hesperides Bring back the three-headed dog Cerberus from the Underworld Hercules not only used his strength and courage to accomplish the twelve labors, but he also used his intelligence. For example, when stealing the apples from the Hesperides, the daughters of Atlas, Hercules got Atlas to get the apples for him. He agreed to hold up the world for Atlas while Atlas got the apples. Then, when Atlas tried to go back on the deal, Hercules had to trick Atlas to once again take the weight of the world on his shoulders. Another example of Hercules using his brain was when he was tasked with cleaning the Augean stables in a day. There were over 3,000 cows in the stables. There was no way he could clean them by hand in a day. So Hercules built a dam and caused a river to flow through the stables. They were cleaned out in no time. Other Adventures Hercules went on a number of other adventures throughout Greek mythology. He was a hero who helped people and fought monsters. He continuously had to deal with the goddess Hera trying to trick him and get him into trouble. In the end, Hercules died when his wife was tricked into poisoning him. However, Zeus saved him and his immortal half went to Olympus to become a god. Interesting Facts about Hercules Hercules was originally only supposed to do ten labors, but the king said that the Augean stables and the slaying of the hydra didn't count. This was because his nephew Iolaus helped him kill the hydra and he took payment for cleaning out the stables. Walt Disney made a feature film called Hercules in 1997. The story of the Hercules and the Hesperides is part of the popular book The Titan's Curse from the series Percy Jackson and the Olympians by Rick Riordan. Hercules wore the pelt of the Lion of Nemea as a cloak. It was impervious to weapons and made him even more powerful. He joined the Argonauts on their search for the Golden Fleece. He also helped the gods in fighting the Giants.

The Augean Stables Hercules Cleans Up

For the fifth labor, Eurystheus ordered Hercules to clean up King Augeas' stables. Hercules knew this job would mean getting dirty and smelly, but sometimes even a hero has to do these things. Then Eurystheus made Hercules' task even harder: he had to clean up after the cattle of Augeas in a single day.

Now King Augeas owned more cattle than anyone in Greece. Some say that he was a son of one of the great gods, and others that he was a son of a mortal; whosever son he was, Augeas was very rich, and he had many herds of cows, bulls, goats, sheep and horses.

Hercules went to King Augeas, and without telling anything about Eurystheus, said that he would clean out the stables in one day, if Augeas would give him a tenth of his fine cattle.

Augeas couldn't believe his ears, but promised. Hercules brought Augeas's son along to watch. First the hero tore a big opening in the wall of the cattle-yard where the stables were. Then he made another opening in the wall on the opposite side of the yard.

Next, he dug wide trenches to two rivers which flowed nearby. He turned the course of the rivers into the yard. The rivers rushed through the stables, flushing them out, and all the mess flowed out the hole in the wall on other side of the yard.

When Augeas learned that Eurystheus was behind all this, he would not pay Hercules his reward. Not only that, he denied that he had even promised to pay a reward. Augeas said that if Hercules didn't like it, he could take the matter to a judge to decide.

The judge took his seat. Hercules called the son of Augeas to testify. The boy swore that his father had agreed to give Hercules a reward. The judge ruled that Hercules would have to be paid. In a rage, Augeas ordered both his own son and Hercules to leave his kingdom at once. So the boy went to the north country to live with his aunts, and Hercules headed back to Mycenae. But Eurystheus said that this labour didn't count, because Hercules was paid for having done the work.

The Apples of the Hesperides

Poor Hercules! After eight years and one month, after performing ten superhuman labors, he was still not off the hook. Eurystheus demanded two more labors from the hero, since he did not count the hydra or the Augean stables as properly done.

Eurystheus commanded Hercules to bring him golden apples which belonged to Zeus, king of the gods. Hera had given these apples to Zeus as a wedding gift, so surely this task was impossible. Hera, who didn't want to see Hercules succeed, would never permit him to steal one of her prize possessions, would she?

These apples were kept in a garden at the northern edge of the world, and they were guarded not only by a hundred-headed dragon, named Ladon, but also by the Hesperides, nymphs who were daughters of Atlas, the titan who held the sky and the earth upon his shoulders.

Hercules' first problem was that he didn't know where the garden was. He journeyed through Libya, Egypt, Arabia, and Asia, having adventures along the way. He was stopped by Kyknos, the son of the war god, Ares, who demanded that Hercules fight him. After the fight was broken up by a thunderbolt, Hercules continued on to Illyria, where he seized the sea-god Nereus, who knew the garden's secret location. Nereus transformed himself into all kinds of shapes,trying to escape, but Hercules held tight and didn't release Nereus until he got the information he needed. Continuing on his quest, Hercules was stopped by Antaeus, the son of the sea god, Poseidon, who also challenged Hercules to fight. Hercules defeated him in a wrestling match, lifting him off the ground and crushing him, because when Antaeus touched the earth he became stronger. After that, Hercules met up with Busiris, another of Poseidon's sons, was captured, and was led to an altar to be a human sacrifice. But Hercules escaped, killing Busiris, and journeyed on.

Hercules came to the rock on Mount Caucasus where Prometheus was chained. Prometheus, a trickster who made fun of the gods and stole the secret of fire from them, was sentenced by Zeus to a horrible fate. He was bound to the mountain, and every day a monstrous eagle came and ate his liver, pecking away at Prometheus' tortured body. After the eagle flew off, Prometheus' liver grew back, and the next day he had to endure the eagle's painful visit all over again. This went on for 30 years, until Hercules showed up and killed the eagle.

In gratitude, Prometheus told Hercules the secret to getting the apples. He would have to send Atlas after them, instead of going himself. Atlas hated holding up the sky and the earth so much that he would agree to the task of fetching the apples, in order to pass his burden over to Hercules. Everything happened as Prometheus had predicted, and Atlas went to get the apples while Hercules was stuck in Atlas's place, with the weight of the world literally on his shoulders.

When Atlas returned with the golden apples, he told Hercules he would take them to Eurystheus himself, and asked Hercules to stay there and hold the heavy load for the rest of time. Hercules slyly agreed, but asked Atlas whether he could take it back again, just for a moment, while the hero put some soft padding on his shoulders to help him bear the weight of the sky and the earth. Atlas put the apples on the ground, and lifted the burden onto his own shoulders. And so Hercules picked up the apples and quickly ran off, carrying them back, uneventfully, to Eurystheus.

There was one final problem: because they belonged to the gods, the apples could not remain with Eurystheus. After all the trouble Hercules went through to get them, he had to return them to Athena, who took them back to the garden at the northern edge of the world.

2.      Odysseus ( also known as Ulysses)

Ulysses and Cyclops

The legendary story of Odysseus

The word Odyssey has come to mean a journey of epic proportions. The word comes from Homer's epic poem The Odyssey, written in the 8th century BC and it is a sequel to Homer's other epic poem, The Iliad, which describes the last days of the great Trojan War.

 Odysseus, a legendary man According to Homer, Laertes and Anticleia were the parents of Odysseus. He was married to Penelope and they gave birth to a son, Telemachus. The Romans transformed the name Odysseus to Ulysses and that is how he is mostly known today all over the world. Odysseus had a proud and arrogant character. He was the master of disguise in both appearance and voice. He also excelled as a military commander and ruler, as is evident from the role he played in ensuring to the Greeks the victory over Troy, giving thus an end to the long Trojan War.

The fall of Troy

All began the day Paris of Troy abducted Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Enraged, Menelaus called upon all kings of Greece, including Odysseus, as all had once vowed to defend the honour of Helen, if someone ever tried to insult her. Odysseus had built a hollow into the wooden horse to hide there a few Greek warriors. This plan was the only way to gain entry to the city that had held its defenses for so many years. Now that they were inside Odysseus and his men went out the dummy horse and slaughtered the unsuspecting guards. Then they opened the city gates and allowed the entire Greek army, who were hiding some miles away, to enter the city. Thus, thanks to the plan of Odysseus, the Greeks won the Trojan War. With the war over, Odysseus and his men set sail for their homeland, Ithaca, but in the end only one of them would come back.

The long journey home

The journey home for Odysseus and his fellows would be long and full of adventures. Their eyes would see all the strange of the world and Odysseus would come home with more memories and experiences than any other person in the world.

Polyphemus the Cyclops

After sailing for many weeks without further adventure, the warriors chanced upon a strange land. Odysseus and a handful of his men went ashore to search the land. A few minutes walk from the ships brought them to the mouth of a gigantic cave. Curious, the warriors entered the cave and found it to be the habitation of some gigantic being. Further on, they found flocks of sheep inside the cave and being hungry, they slaughtered a few of them and feasted on their flesh. Unknown to them, this was the lair of Polyphemus the Cyclops and this land was the home of the gigantic Cyclopes. Returning to his cave, Polyphemus blocked the entrance with a huge rock, as he usually did. Odysseus and his men ran towards the entrance but they were dismayed at the sight that greeted them. Here was a huge rock preventing their escape from a being that was even bigger than the rock. Laying his only eye on the warriors, Polyphemus asked who they were. Without revealing their identity or mission, Odysseus told Polyphemus they were sea-farers who had lost their way and had come ashore looking for food. Unhappy that his sheep had been killed and eaten by these men, Polyphemus refused them to exit his cave. Everyday he made a meal of two brave warriors, dashing their brains out on the walls of the cave and chewing them raw. Unable to bear this act of cruelty, Odysseus devised a plan to get them out. He had with him a gourd of strong wine and one day he offered it to Polyphemus, who grabbed it and poured it down his throat greedily. The wine made the Cyclops drowsy and within minutes he fell asleep. Odysseus and his remaining men took a red-hot poker from the fire-place and thrust it into the Cyclop's only eye, blinding him. The sleeping giant awoke in shock, howling in pain and bellowing in rage, demanding to know who had done this. Yet again Odysseus presence of mind proved of the very essence and he shouted out that his name was "Nobody". Polyphemus, now on his feet and stumbling around created such a commotion that his fellow Cyclops came running to his lair to see what had happened. When they stood outside the cave and asked Polyphemus what had happened, the Cyclops said that Nobody had blinded him. The other Cyclopes laughed out loud, called him an idiot and told him there was nothing they could do for "Nobody" had hurt him. The following morning, Odysseus and his men strapped themselves to the belly of the sheep and in this manner they escaped when Polyphemus let his flocks out of his lair to graze. Once outside, the warriors ran to the safety of their ships. Odysseus, however, priding his brilliance, could not resist taunting Polyphemus. The moment they set sail, he shouted out to the Cyclops that it was he, Odysseus, who had blinded him. Enraged and unable to see, Polyphemus threw a massive rock in the direction of the voice. Luckily for Odysseus, it fell short of its target for else his ship would have been smashed. Polyphemus cried out to his father, the sea-god Poseidon, to avenge this ignominy and hereafter Odysseus became a sworn enemy of Poseidon.

Ulysses and Circe

Circe the Enchantress

Having barely saved their lives, Odysseus and the men aboard the one surviving ship landed on the island, Aeaea, home to the powerful Circe, enchantress and powerful sorceress. With the help of strong magic and unknown to the warriors, Circe had already envisioned their arrival on her island. Some fellows of Odysseus who had been sent to explore the island, walked into the palace of Circe and saw her sitting on her magnificent throne, surrounded by wild animals who were once men. The beautiful enchantress, with one touch of her stick, turned the mighty warriors into pigs. With the help of god Hermes, Odysseus drank a certain herb that protected him from Circe's magic. When she saw him, the sorceress found her spells to be ineffective and on his demand that his men be turned back into human form, the sorceress agreed but only if Odysseus shared her bed-chamber. Odysseus consented and moreover, he and his men spent a whole year on this island. At the end of that year, Odysseus decided to depart from Aeaea and continue his way home. Circe, having the ability to predict future, gave him instructions on what to do afterwards. She advised him to go to the Underworld and meet the blind prophet Tiresius to ask him for instructions.

The Journey to the Underworld

No alive man had ever entered the Underworld. But brave Odysseus decided to do so, in order to continue his journey and reach Ithaca at last! Odysseus and his men made sacrifices to god Hades by the shores of the River Acheron and Odysseus alone took the path to the dark Underworld. Tiresius appeared to Odysseus and the blind prophet told him that in order to get home he had to pass between Scylla and Charybdis, two great monsters.

The Sirens

 Leaving Hades, Odysseus and his men sailed for many days without sight of land. Not before long, though, strange disquieting sounds reached the ears of the men aboard the ship. The sounds tugged at their hearts and made them want to weep with joy. Odysseus at once realized that they were approaching the Sirens that Circe had warned him about. The sorceress had told him to block every man's ears with wax for if any were to hear the song of the Sirens, he would surely jump off the ship, go close to the Sirens and the winged monsters would kill them. Odysseus did exactly that with his men, but he himself wanted to hear their strange song. He thus ordered his sailors to tie him up to the mast so he could not jump into the sea in an attempt to meet the Sirens. With their ears blocked with wax, the men heard nothing and the ship passed near the Sirens. Suddenly, Odysseus wanted to get free of his bonds and swim towards the Sirens for their song had just become clear and it was very beautiful and captivating. But the ropes were very tight and fortunately he could not untie himself. His fellows could hear neither the Sirens neither the screams of their leader, who was praying them to untie him. As the ship was sailing away from the shore, the song of the Sirens was fading out.

Scylla and Charybdis

Following the advice of Tiresius, Odysseus chose the route that would take him on one side close to Scylla, a six-headed monster who had once been a woman and on the other side Charybdis, a violent whirlpool. Tiresius had advised Odysseus to sacrifice six men to Scylla so they might pass through without losing any more men. Approaching the mouth of the strait between Scylla and Charybdis the warriors shrank back in fear for on either side were violent deaths. Only Odysseus was quiet, sad that he would have to lose six brave warriors but he was ready to do so, in order to save the others. As they passed by Scylla, she picked up six men and allowed the rest to pass through safely. Odysseus never forgot the screams of the men he had to sacrifice and to the very end of his days he lamented his betrayal. He had not informed a single warrior of his motive. Then his ship passed from Charibdys but managed to survive.

The Cattle of Helios

Weary and tired from the ordeal, Odysseus ordered his ship to weigh anchor at the island of Thrinacia. This island was sacred to the sun god Helios whose cattle grazed freely here. Even though Odysseus had been warned by Tiresius and Circe not to harm any of the cattles, his men defied him and set about slaughtering and feasting on them. Immediately Helios complained to Zeus, vowing to take vengeance by sending the sun down to Hades, never to rise again. Zeus in response sank Odysseus ship with a thunderbolt as it was leaving Thrinacia and destroyed every man aboard with the exception of the valiant leader. Somehow, a floundering Odysseus was swept past Scylla and Charybdis and washed up ashore on an unknown island.

Ulysses and Penelope

The arrival of Odysseus on Ithaca went unnoticed and, in the guise of a beggar, he approached the palace. He first met his old servants and his beloved son, Telemachus. From them, he learnt about the suitors that have been bothering Penelope for so long. Odysseus, still in the form of a beggar, he met his wife, who didn't recognize him. He told her about her husband's bravery and how he had helped in winning the Trojan War. These tails brought tears to her eyes. Calming herself, she approached the suitors who were always hanging around the palace and set them a simple task. Penelope would marry anyone of them who could string Odysseus' bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe-handles joined together. The suitors pushed and shoved each other to be the first to succeed but little did they know that the task they faced was impossible. Stringing the bow that belonged to Odysseus was not an easy task for it required not brute strength but dexterity. One by one, each suitor tried his luck but to no avail. Finally, Odysseus picked up the bow, stringing it with ease and in one fluid motion letting fly an arrow that pierced all the twelve axe-handles. After that, there was chaos. Revealing his true identity, Odysseus began massacring the suitors and, aided by Telemachus and the swineherd Eumaeus, they had soon cleared the court of all 108 of them. The suitors were killed and the maid-servants, who had made themselves the pleasure slaves of the suitors, were all hung. When Penelope heard the massacre, she run to the court. Fazed by the sudden spate of events, she refused to believe that this strange beggar was indeed her long lost husband Odysseus, so she set up another test for him. In front of Odysseus, Penelope ordered the palace servants to remove the bed from her bed-chamber to the hall outside. On hearing this, Odysseus bristled with anger and opposed the idea, saying that this bed had been fashioned out of a living oak by his own hand and none, save a god, none in the whole world could move it. Joyful, Penelope rushed to Odysseus and hugged him, with big tears in her eyes, for she was reassured that this man was her beloved husband returned to her. Only Odysseus knew the secret about their bed and his words were the proof she needed to believe him.

The real end

This, however, was not the end of Odysseus' journey. Prophet Tiresius had forewarned him that once he had re-asserted himself as King of Ithaca, he should travel inland holding the oar of a ship. Indeed, after a few years, Odysseus crowned Telemachus King of Ithaca and left him and his wife Penelope to travel on the opposite inland. Many days did he wander with the oar in hand seeking for people who would not know what it was but wherever he went, people recognized it as an oar. One day, far inland, opposite the shores of Ithaca, Odysseus came across those people who had never seen the sea and hence did not know what an oar was. There it was that Odysseus finished his life travel and took a local princess for his bride. For many years, he lived amongst these people and it was here that he breathed his last, far from the sea, his family and his beloved Ithaca.

Romulus and Remus

Romulus and Remus are the mythological twin brothers who founded the city of Rome. Here is their story. Twins are Born Romulus and Remus were twin boys born to a princess named Rhea Silvia. Their father was the fierce Roman god of war, Mars. The king where the boys lived was scared that someday Romulus and Remus would overthrow him and take his throne. So he had the boys left in a basket on the Tiber River. He figured they would soon die. Raised by a Wolf The boys were found by a she-wolf. The wolf cared for them and protected them from other wild animals. A friendly woodpecker helped to find them food. Eventually some shepherds happened across the twins. One shepherd took the boys home and raised them as his own children.

Growing Up As the boys grew older they became natural leaders. One day Remus was captured and taken to the king. He discovered his true identity. Romulus gathered some shepherds to rescue his brother. They ended up killing the king. When the city learned who the boys were, they offered to crown them as joint kings. They could be rulers of their homeland. However, they turned down the crowns because they wanted to found their own city. The twins left and set out to find the perfect spot for their city. Founding a New City The twins eventually came to the place where Rome is located today. They both liked the general area, but each wanted to place the city on a different hill. Romulus wanted the city to be on top of Palatine Hill while Remus preferred Aventine Hill. They agreed to wait for a sign from the gods, called an augury, to determine which hill to use. Remus saw the sign of six vultures first, but Romulus saw twelve. Each claimed to have won. Remus is Killed Romulus went ahead and started building a wall around Palantine Hill. However, Remus was jealous and began to make fun of Romulus' wall. At one point Remus jumped over the wall to show how easy it was to cross. Romulus became angry and killed Remus. Rome is Founded With Remus dead, Romulus continued to work on his city. He officially founded the city on April 21, 753 BC, making himself king, and naming it Rome after himself. From there he began to organize the city. He divided his army into legions of 3,300 men. He called his 100 most noble men the Patricians and the elders of Rome the Senate. The city grew and prospered. For over 1,000 years Rome would be one of the most powerful cities in the world. Interesting Facts about Romulus and Remus The boys were descendents of the Trojan prince and great warrior Aeneas made famous from Virgil's epic poem the Aeneid. In another version of the story the father of the boys is the hero Hercules. Over time, the city of Rome expanded to cover the seven surrounding hills of Aventine Hill, Caelian Hill, Capitoline Hill, Esquiline Hill, Palatine Hill, Quirinal Hill, and Viminal Hill. Romulus died when he mysteriously disappeared in a whirlwind. The poet Ovid once wrote that Romulus was turned into a god named Quirinus and went to live on Mount Olympus with his father Mars.

The Story of Dido, Queen of Carthage

In Greek mythology, Dido was the founder and queen of Carthage, a city on the northern coast of Africa. She was the daughter of Belus (or Mutto), a king of Tyre in Phoenicia *, and the sister of Pygmalion. Dido is best known for her love affair with the Trojan hero Aeneas *.

King Belus had wanted his son and daughter to share royal power equally after his death, but Pygmalion seized the throne and murdered Dido's husband. Dido and her followers fled from Tyre, landing on the shores of North Africa. There a local ruler named Iarbas agreed to sell Dido as much land as the hide of a bull could cover. Dido cut a bull's hide into thin strips and used it to outline a large area of land. On that site, Dido built Carthage and became its queen.

Carthage became a prosperous city. Iarbas pursued Dido, hoping to marry her, but Dido refused. After her husband's death, she had sworn never to marry again. Iarbas would not take no for an answer and even threatened Carthage with war unless Dido agreed to be his wife. Seeing no other alternative, Dido killed herself by throwing herself into the flames of a funeral pyre. In another version of the story, she mounted the pyre and stabbed herself, surrounded by her people.

The Roman poet Virgil used part of the story of Dido in his epic the Aeneid . In Virgil's account, the Trojan leader Aeneas was shipwrecked on the shore near Carthage at the time when Dido was building the new city. After welcoming Aeneas and his men, the queen fell deeply in love with him. In time, the two lived together as wife and husband, and Aeneas began to act as though he were king of Carthage. Then Jupiter * sent a messenger to tell Aeneas that he could not remain in Carthage. Rather, his destiny was to found a new city for the Trojans in Italy.

Dido was devastated when she heard that Aeneas planned to leave. She had believed that the two of them would eventually marry. Aeneas insisted that he had no choice but to obey the gods, and shortly afterward, he and his men set sail for Italy. When Dido saw the ships sail out to sea, she ordered a funeral pyre to be built. She climbed onto to it, cursed Aeneas, and using a sword he had given her, stabbed herself to death. In 1689, the English composer Henry Purcell wrote an opera, Dido and Aeneas, that was based on the story and characters from Greek mythology.

THE STORY OF CUPID AND PSYCHE

Cupid and Psyche is a story originally from Metamorphoses (also called The Golden Ass), written in the 2nd Century AD by Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis. It concerns the overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche, "Soul" or "Breath of Life") and Cupid ("Desire") or Amor ("Love”), and their ultimate union in a sacred marriage.

Cupid and Psyche's narrative begins as most modern fairy tales do: with a kingdom, a daughter with an insurmountable burden over her head, a trial, and a subsequent moral.  It is as follows: a king and queen give birth to three daughters, but only the third possesses unearthly beauty.  Apuleius' text claimed that her beauty was so astounding the "poverty of language is unable to express its due praise."  Rumors spread of this girl, Psyche's, astounding loveliness, eventually reaching the ears of the Roman goddess Venus.  Angry that so many mortals were comparing Psyche's beauty to her own and in many ways claiming that the mortal surpassed her Venus calls upon her son Cupid to demand that he use one of his arrows of desire to ensure Psyche fall in love with a human monster.

Obedient as always to his mother, Cupid then descends to the earthly plane to do as she wishes.  Yet he was so astonished himself by the mortal princess' beauty that he mistakenly shot himself.  From that moment, Cupid was irrevocably in love with the princess.  Around this time, it became evident to her parents that Psyche's attractiveness had angered the gods, as no mortal man would take her hand in marriage.  Imploring the temple of Apollo, they learn that Psyche is destined for a much worse fate than celibacy: "The virgin is destined for the bride of no mortal lover.  Her future husband awaits her on the top of the mountain.  He is a monster whom neither gods nor men can resist."  Psyche, conscious of the mistakes of her mortal kingdom for praising her so highly, is content to follow the oracle's advice.

From the top of the highest cliff, dressed in funerary garbs, Psyche is swept away by the west wind, Zephyr.  She is brought to a striking valley, in the center of which stands a palace so magnificent it could not have been built by any hands other than the gods'.  Surrounded by luscious trees with a crystalline fountain at its heart, Psyche soon comes to the conclusion that this golden hall is her new home, further reiterated by the voice of her new husband echoing through the halls.  This faceless stranger begins to visit her in the night, every night, to make love to her in the darkness.  But despite his nighttime tenderness, Psyche is haunted by the oracle's claim that he was a monster.

 

Psyche's Betrayal

When allowing her two sisters to visit, they are jealous of her beautiful home and insist that Psyche's husband really is a monster and she owes it to herself to find out.  So Psyche is convinced to break her husband's only request of allowing his face to remain a secret and look upon him in the night.  In doing so, she damns their relationship.

A single drop of oil falls from the candle Psyche lights to gaze at his face, waking him, and Cupid, in all his majestic beauty, flees their home, distressed by her betrayal.   Distraught, Psyche goes in search of her husband, traveling for many days, until she comes to the temple of Ceres, the motherly goddess of grain. 

The Trials

Ceres instructs Psyche to surrender herself to Venus and take whatever ill will the goddess throws at her.  Obeying Ceres' advice, Psyche is thus given three seemingly impossible tasks to complete. First, the princess has to separate the grains of Venus' temple's storehouse into piles of barley, millet, beans, etc. Second, Psyche has to steal golden wool from a herd of sheep; third and finally, Psyche is ordered to travel into the underworld and request from Queen Proserpina a little of her beauty to pass along to the goddess of love. This task, however, demands a further challenge: that Psyche keeps the box in which the beauty is placed tightly closed, for fear of terrible repercussions.

Unknown to Psyche, throughout these trails, Cupid is constantly at her aid.  He instructs ants to help her sort the grains; and then the river god offers her instructions of how to steal the prize fleece from the shepherd. Finally, Psyche is given divine advice on how to surpass the dangers of Hades.

Her failure foretold by Venus herself comes when Psyche, greatly upset by the trials she had to overcome, opens the box and is overcome by the Stygian sleep, a sleep so strong she is considered the living dead.  By that point, Cupid has had enough of his separation from his wife, and he flies to her rescue, lifting her sleeping form to the heavens, and pleading with the great god Jupiter to talk sense into his mother.  Venus lifts her terrible curse from the girl, and once Psyche is awake, she is transformed into an immortal, and is properly wed to the young god of desire. 

STORY OF EURYDICE AND ORPHEUS

Orpheus was the son of Apollo and he was a very gifted musician whos music could charm mortals, animals and the trees. Eurydice was the wife of Orpheus and one day Eurydice was wandering with the nymphs and a shepherd named Aristaeus attempted to make advance toward Eurydice and she ran off. While running she was bitten by a snake and died. Being so grief strucken Orpheus played his sorrows in his music which was heard by gods and men.

In such need for his love he went in search Eurydice in the underworld. In the underworld he sang his sorrow with such perfection that Pluto, Proserpine and all of the ghosts of the underworld stopped. Orpheus’s song made Proserpine and Pluto grant him his desire. They let Eurydice leave with him under one condition; he could not look at her until they left the underworld.

When they nearly left the underworld Orpheus had forgotten his promise and wanted to assure that Eurydice was following him he looked at her and she was instantly gone. Orpheus didn’t even have a chance to hug his love. In such love for his wife Orpheus wanted to follow her in death. He wandered back into the underworld and kept playing his heartbreaking song. Orpheus’s singing had caused the Thracian maidens to get angry and screamed to drown out his overpowering music. The maidens ripped him apart and placed his remains at Libethra. Now in death Orpheus and Eurydice walk the fields together in true happiness. 

STORY OF ECHO AND NARCISSUS

Echo was a beautiful nymph, fond of the woods and hills, where she devoted herself to woodland sports. She was a favorite of Diana, and attended her in the chase. But Echo had one failing; she was fond of talking, and whether in chat or argument, would have the last word. One day Juno was seeking her husband, who, she had reason to fear, was amusing himself among the nymphs. Echo by her talk contrived to detain the goddess till the nymphs made their escape. When Juno discovered it, she passed sentence upon Echo in these words: “You shall forfeit the use of that tongue with which you have cheated me; except for that one purpose you are so fond of reply. You shall still have the last word, but no power to speak first.” This nymph saw Narcissus, a beautiful youth, as he pursued the chase upon the mountains. She loved him and followed his footsteps. O how she longed to address him in the softest accents, and wins him to converse! But it was not in her power.  She waited with impatience for him to speak first, and had her answer ready. One day the youth, being separated from his companions, shouted aloud, “Who’s here?” Echo replied, “Here” Narcissus looked around, but seeing no one, called out, “Come.” Echo answered, “Come.” As no one came, Narcissus called again, “Why do you shun me?” Echo asked the same question. “Let us join one another,” said the youth. The maid answered with all her heart in the same words, and hastened to the spot, ready to throw her arms about his neck. He started back, exclaiming, “Hands off! I would rather die than you should have me!” “Have me,” said she; but it was all in vain. He left her, and she went to hide her blushes in the recesses of the woods.  From that time forth she lived in caves and among mountain cliffs. Her form faded with grief, till at last all her flesh shrank away. Her bones were changed into rocks and there was nothing left of her but her voice. With that she is still ready to reply to anyone who calls her, and keeps up her old habit of having the last word. Narcissus’s cruelty in this case was not the only instance. He shunned all the rest of the nymphs, as he had done poor Echo. One day a maiden who had in vain endeavored to attract him uttered a prayer that he might some time or other feel what it was to love and meet no return of affection. The avenging goddess heard and granted the prayer. There was a clear fountain, with water like silver, to which the shepherds never drove their flocks, nor the mountain goats resorted, nor any of the beasts of the forests; neither was it defaced with fallen leaves or branches, but the grass grew fresh around it, and the rocks sheltered it from the sun. Hither came one day the youth, fatigued with hunting, heated and thirsty. He stooped down to drink, and saw his own image in the water; he thought it was some beautiful water-spirit living in the fountain. He stood gazing with admiration at those bright eyes, those locks curled like the locks of Bacchus or Apollo, the rounded cheeks, the ivory neck, the parted lips, and the glow of health and exercise over all. He fell in love with himself. He brought his lips near to take a kiss; he plunged his arms in to embrace the beloved object. It fled at the touch, but returned again after a moment and renewed the fascination. He could not tear himself away; he lost all thought of food or rest, while he hovered over the brink of the fountain gazing upon his own image. He talked with the supposed spirit: “Why, beautiful being, do you shun me? Surely my face is not one to repel you. The nymphs love me, and you yourself look not indifferent upon me. When I stretch forth my arms you do the same; and you smile upon me and answer my beckoning with the like.” His tears fell into the water and disturbed the image. As he saw it depart, he exclaimed, “Stay, I entreat you! Let me at least gaze upon you, if I may not touch you.” With this, and much more of the same kind, he cherished the flame that consumed him, so that by degrees he lost his color, his vigor, and the beauty which formerly had so charmed the nymph Echo. She kept near him, however, and when he exclaimed, “Alas! alas!” she answered him with the same words. He pinned away and died; and when his shade passed the Stygian river, it leaned over the boat to catch a look of itself in the waters. The nymphs mourned for him, especially the water-nymphs; and when they smote their breasts Echo smote hers also. They prepared a funeral pile and would have burned the body, but it was nowhere to be found; but in its place a flower, purple within, and surrounded with white leaves, which bears the name and preserves the memory of Narcissus.

Unit – 3: Celtic Mythology

OISIN IN THE LAND OF YOUTH

It happened that on a misty summer morning as Finn and Oisín with many companions were hunting on the shores of Loch Lena they saw coming towards them a maiden, beautiful exceedingly, riding on a snow-white steed. She wore the garb of a queen; a crown of gold was on her head, and a dark brown mantle of silk, set with stars of red gold, fell around her and trailed on the ground. Silver shoes were on her horse's hoofs, and a crest of gold nodded on his head. When she came near she said to Finn, "From very far away I have come, and now at last I have found thee, Finn, son of Cumhal."

Then Finn said, "What is thy land and race, maiden, and what dost thou seek from me?"

"My name," she said, "is Niam of the Golden Hair. I am the daughter of the King of the Land of Youth, and that which has brought me here is the love of thy son Oisín." Then she turned to Oisín and she spoke to him in the voice of one who has never asked anything but it was granted to her, "Wilt thou go with me, Oisín, to my father's land?"

And Oisín said, "That will I, and to the world's end"; for the fairy spell had so wrought upon his heart that he cared no more for any earthly thing but to have the love of Niam of the Head of Gold.

Then the maiden spoke of the Land Oversea to which she had summoned her lover, and as she spoke a dreamy stillness fell on all things, nor did a horse shake his bit nor a hound bay, nor the least breath of wind stir in the forest trees till she had made an end. And what she said seemed sweeter and more wonderful as she spoke it than anything they could afterwards remember to have heard, but so far as they could remember it, it was this:—

"Delightful is the land beyond all dreams,
Fairer than aught thine eyes have ever seen.
There all the year the fruit is on the tree,
And all the year the bloom is on the flower.

"There with wild honey drip the forest trees;
The stores of wine and mead shall never fail.
Nor pain nor sickness knows the dweller there,
Death and decay come near him never more.

"The feast shall cloy not, nor the chase shall tire,
Nor music cease for ever through the hall;
The gold and jewels of the Land of Youth
Outshine all splendours ever dreamed by man.

"Thou shalt have horses of the fairy breed,
Thou shalt have hounds that can outrun the wind;
A hundred chiefs shall follow thee in war,
A hundred maidens sing thee to thy sleep.

"A crown of sovranty thy brow shall wear,
And by thy side a magic blade shall hang.
Thou shalt be lord of all the Land of Youth,
And lord of Niam of the Head of Gold."

As the magic song ended, the Fians beheld Oisín mount the fairy steed and hold the maiden in his arms, and ere they could stir or speak she turned her horse's head and shook the ringing bridle and down the forest glade they fled, as a beam of light flies over the land when clouds drive across the sun; and never did the Fianna behold Oisín, son of Finn, on earth again.

Yet what befell him afterwards is known. As his birth was strange so was his end, for he saw the wonders of the Land of Youth with mortal eyes and lived to tell them with mortal lips.

When the white horse with its riders reached the sea it ran lightly over the waves and soon the green woods and headlands of Erinn faded out of sight. And now the sun shone fiercely down, and the riders passed into a golden haze in which Oisín lost all knowledge of where he was or if sea or dry land were beneath his horse's hoofs. But strange sights sometimes appeared to them in the mist, for towers and palace gateways loomed up and disappeared, and once a hornless doe bounded by them chased by a white hound with one red ear, and again they saw a young maid ride by on a brown steed, bearing a golden apple in her hand, and close behind her followed a young horseman on a white steed, a purple cloak floating at his back and a gold-hilted sword in his hand. And Oisín would have asked the princess who and what these apparitions were, but Niam bade him ask nothing nor seem to notice any phantom they might see until they were come to the Land of Youth.

"They rode up to a stately palace"

At last the sky gloomed above them, and Niam urged their steed faster. The wind lashed them with pelting rain, thunder roared across the sea and lightning blazed, but they held on their way till at length they came once more into a region of calm and sunshine. And now Oisín saw before him a shore of yellow sand, lapped by the ripples of a summer sea. Inland, there rose before his eye wooded hills amid which he could discern the roofs and towers of a noble city. The white horse bore them swiftly to the shore and Oisín and the maiden lighted down. And Oisín marvelled at everything around him, for never was water so blue or trees so stately as those he saw, and the forest was alive with the hum of bees and the song of birds, and the creatures that are wild in other lands, the deer and the red squirrel and the wood-dove, came, without fear, to be caressed. Soon, as they went forward, the walls of a city came in sight, and folk began to meet them on the road, some riding, some afoot, all of whom were either youths or maidens, all looking as joyous as if the morning of happy life had just begun for them, and no old or feeble person was to be seen. Niam led her companion through a towered gateway built of white and red marble, and there they were met by a glittering company of a hundred riders on black steeds and a hundred on white, and Oisín mounted a black horse and Niam her white, and they rode up to a stately palace where the King of the Land of Youth had his dwelling. And there he received them, saying in a loud voice that all the folk could hear, "Welcome, Oisín, son of Finn. Thou art come to the Land of Youth, where sorrow and weariness and death shall never touch thee. This thou hast won by thy faithfulness and valour and by the songs that thou hast made for the men of Erinn, whereof the fame is come to us, for we have here indeed all things that are delightful and joyous, but poesy alone we had not. But now we have the chief poet of the race of men to live with us, immortal among immortals, and the fair and cloudless life that we lead here shall be praised in verses as fair; even as thou, Oisín, did'st praise and adorn the short and toilsome and chequered life that men live in the world thou hast left forever. And Niam my daughter shall be thy bride, and thou shalt be in all things even as myself in the Land of Youth."

Then the heart of Oisín was filled with glory and joy, and he turned to Niam and saw her eyes burn with love as she gazed upon him. And they were wedded the same day, and the joy they had in each other grew sweeter and deeper with every day that passed. All that Niam had promised in her magic song in the wild wood when first they met, seemed faint beside the splendour and beauty of the life in the Land of Youth. In the great palace they trod on silken carpets and ate off plates of gold; the marble walls and doorways were wrought with carved work, or hung with tapestries, where forest glades, and still lakes, and flying deer were done in colours of unfading glow. Sunshine bathed that palace always, and cool winds wandered through its dim corridors, and in its courts there played fountains of bright water set about with flowers. When Oisín wished to ride, a steed of fiery but gentle temper bore him wherever he would through the pleasant land; when he longed to hear music, there came upon his thought, as though borne on the wind, crystal notes such as no hand ever struck from the strings of any harp on earth.

But Oisín's hand now never touched the harp, and the desire of singing and of making poetry never waked in him, for no one thing seemed so much better than the rest, where all perfection bloomed and glowed around him, as to make him long to praise it and to set it apart.

When seven days had passed, he said to Niam, "I would fain go a-hunting." Niam said, "So be it, dear love; to-morrow we shall take order for that." Oisín lay long awake that night, thinking of the sound of Finn's hunting-horn, and of the smell of green boughs when they kindled them to roast the deer-flesh in Fian ovens in the wildwood.

So next day Oisín and Niam fared forth on horseback, with their company of knights and maidens, and dogs leaping and barking with eagerness for the chase. Anon they came to the forest, and the hunters with the hounds made a wide circuit on this side and on that, till at last the loud clamour of the hounds told that a stag was on foot, and Oisín saw them streaming down an open glen, the stag with its great antlers laid back and flying like the wind. So he shouted the Fian hunting-cry and rode furiously on their track. All day long they chased the stag through the echoing forest, and the fairy steed bore him unfaltering over rough ground and smooth, till at last as darkness began to fall the quarry was pulled down, and Oisín cut its throat with his hunting-knife. Long it seemed to him since he had felt glad and weary as he felt now, and since the woodland air with its odours of pine and mint and wild garlic had tasted so sweet in his mouth; and truly it was longer than he knew. But when he bade make ready the wood-oven for their meal, and build a bothy of boughs for their repose, Niam led him seven steps apart and seven to the left hand, and yet seven back to the place where they had killed the deer, and lo, there rose before him a stately Dún with litten windows and smoke drifting above its roof. When they entered, there was a table spread for a great company, and cooks and serving-men busy about a wide hearth where roast and boiled meats of every sort were being prepared. Casks of Greek wine stood open around the walls, and cups of gold were on the board. So they all ate and drank their sufficiency, and all night Oisín and Niam slept on a bed softer than swans-down in a chamber no less fair than that which they had in the City of the Land of Youth.

Next day, at the first light of dawn, they were on foot; and soon again the forest rang to the baying of hounds and the music of the hunting-horn. Oisín's steed bore him all day, tireless and swift as before, and again the quarry fell at night's approach, and again a palace rose in the wilderness for their night's entertainment, and all things in it even more abundant and more sumptuous than before. And so for seven days they fared in that forest, and seven stags were slain. Then Oisín grew wearied of hunting, and as he plunged his sharp black hunting-knife into the throat of the last stag, he thought of the sword of magic temper that hung idle by his side in the City of Youth, or rested from its golden nail in his bed-chamber, and he said to Niam, "Has thy father never a foe to tame, never a wrong to avenge? Surely the peasant is no man whose hand forgets the plough, nor the warrior whose hand forgets the sword hilt." Niam looked on him strangely for a while and as if she did not understand his words, or sought some meaning in them which yet she feared to find. But at last she said, "If deeds of arms be thy desire, Oisín, thou shalt have thy sufficiency ere long." And so they rode home, and slept that night in the palace of the City of Youth.

At daybreak on the following morn Niam roused Oisín, and she buckled on him his golden-hilted sword and his corselet of blue steel inlaid with gold. Then he put on his head a steel and gold helmet with dragon crest, and slung on his back a shield of bronze wrought all over with cunning hammer-work of serpentine lines that swelled and sank upon the surface, and coiled in mazy knots, or flowed in long sweeping curves like waves of the sea when they gather might and volume for their leap upon the sounding shore. In the glimmering dawn, through the empty streets of the fair city, they rode forth alone and took their way through fields of corn and by apple orchards where red fruit hung down to their hands. But by noontide their way began to mount upwards among blue hills that they had marked from the city walls toward the west, and of man's husbandry they saw no more, but tall red-stemmed pine trees bordered the way on either side, and silence and loneliness increased. At length they reached a broad table-land deep in the heart of the mountains, where nothing grew but long coarse grass, drooping by pools of black and motionless water, and where great boulders, bleached white or stained with slimy lichens of livid red, lay scattered far and wide about the plain. Against the sky the mountain line now showed like a threat of bared and angry teeth, and as they rode towards it Oisín perceived a huge fortress lying in the throat of a wide glen or mountain pass. White as death was the stone of which it was built, save where it was streaked with black or green from the foulness of wet mosses that clung to its cornices and battlements, and none seemed stirring about the place nor did any banner blow from its towers.

Then said Niam, "This, O Oisín, is the Dún of the giant Fovor of the Mighty Blows. In it he keeps prisoner a princess of the Fairy Folk whom he would fain make his bride, but he may not do so, nor may she escape, until Fovor has met in battle a champion who will undertake her cause. Approach, then, to the gate, if thou art fain to undertake this adventure, and blow the horn which hangs thereby, and then look to thy weapons, for soon indeed will the battle be broken upon thee."

Then Oisín rode to the gate and thrice he blew on the great horn which hung by it, and the clangour of it groaned drearily back from the cliffs that overhung the glen. Not thus indeed sounded the Dord of Finn as its call blew lust of fighting and scorn of death into the hearts of the Fianna amid the stress of battle. At the third blast the rusty gates opened, grinding on their hinges, and Oisín rode into a wide courtyard where servitors of evil aspect took his horse and Niam's, and led them into the hall of Fovor. Dark it was and low, with mouldering arras on its walls, and foul and withered rushes on the floor, where dogs gnawed the bones thrown to them at the last meal, and spilt ale and hacked fragments of flesh littered the bare oaken table. And here rose languidly to greet them a maiden bound with seven chains, to whom Niam spoke lovingly, saying that her champion was come and that her long captivity should end. And the maiden looked upon Oisín, whose proud bearing and jewelled armour made the mean place seem meaner still, and a light of hope and of joy seemed to glimmer upon her brow. So she gave them refreshment as she could, and afterwards they betook them once more to the courtyard, where the place of battle was set.

Here, at the further side, stood a huge man clad in rusty armour, who when he saw Oisín rushed upon him, silent and furious, and swinging a great battleaxe in his hand. But doubt and langour weighed upon Oisín's heart, and it seemed to him as if he were in an evil dream, which he knew was but a dream, and would be less than nothing when the hour of awakening should come. Yet he raised his shield and gripped the fairy sword, striving to shout the Fian battle-cry as he closed with Fovor. But soon a heavy blow smote him to the ground, and his armour clanged harshly on the stones. Then a cloud seemed to pass from his spirit, and he leaped to his feet quicker than an arrow flies from the string, and thrusting fiercely at the giant his sword-point gashed the under side of Fovor's arm when it was raised to strike, and Oisín saw his enemy's blood. Then the fight raged hither and thither about the wide courtyard, with trampling of feet and clash of steel and ringing of armour and shouts of onset as the heroes closed; Oisín, agile as a wild stag, evading the sweep of the mighty axe and rushing in with flickering blade at every unguarded moment, his whole soul bent on one fierce thought, to drive his point into some gap at shoulder or neck in Fovor's coat of mail. At length, when both were weary and wounded men, with hacked and battered armour, Oisín's blade cut the thong of Fovor's headpiece and it fell clattering to the ground. Another blow laid the giant prostrate, and Oisín leaned, dizzy and panting, upon his sword, while Fovor's serving-men took off their master in a litter, and Niam came to aid her lord. Then Oisín stripped off his armour in the great hall, and Niam tended to his wounds, healing them with magic herbs and murmured incantations, and they saw that one of the seven rusty chains that had bound the princess hung loose from its iron staple in the wall.

All night long Oisín lay in deep and healing slumber, and next day he arose, whole and strong, and hot to renew the fray. And the giant was likewise healed and his might and fierceness returned to him. So they fought till they were breathless and weary, and then to it again, and again, till in the end Oisín drove his sword to the hilt in the giant's shoulder where it joins the collar bone, and he fell aswoon, and was borne away as before. And another chain of the seven fell from the girdle of the captive maiden.

Thus for seven days went on the combat, and Oisín had seven nights of healing and rest, with the tenderness and beauty of Niam about his couch; and on the seventh day the maiden was free, and her folk brought her away, rejoicing, with banners and with music that made a brightness for a while in that forlorn and evil place.

But Oisín's heart was high with pride and victory, and a longing uprose in his heart with a rush like a springtide for the days when some great deed had been done among the Fianna, and the victors were hailed and lauded by the home-folk in the Dún of Allen, men and women leaving their toil or their pleasure to crowd round the heroes, and to question again and again, and to learn each thing that had passed; and the bards noting all to weave it into a glorious tale for after days; and more than all the smile and the look of Finn as he learned how his children had borne themselves in the face of death. And so Oisín said to Niam, "Let me, for a short while, return to the land of Erinn, that I may see there my friends and kin and tell them of the glory and joy that are mine in the Land of Youth." But Niam wept and laid her white arms about his neck, entreating him to think no more of the sad world where all men live and move under a canopy of death, and where summer is slain by winter, and youth by old age, and where love itself, if it die not by falsehood and wrong, perishes many a time of too complete a joy. But Oisín said, "The world of men compared with thy world is like this dreary waste compared with the city of thy father; yet in that city, Niam, none is better or worse than another, and I hunger to tell my tale to ignorant and feeble folk that my words can move, as words of mine have done of old, to wonder and delight. Then I shall return to thee, Niam, and to thy fair and blissful land; and having brought over to mortal men a tale that never man has told before, I shall be happy and at peace for ever in the Land of Youth."

So they fared back to the golden city, and next day Niam brought to Oisín the white steed that had borne them from Erinn, and bade him farewell. "This our steed," she said, "will carry thee across the sea to the land where I found thee, and whithersoever thou wilt, and what folk are there thou shalt see, and what tale thou hast to tell can be told. But never for even a moment must thou alight from his back, for if thy foot once touch again the soil of earth, thou shalt never win to me and to the Land of Youth again. And sorely do I fear some evil chance. Was not the love of Niam of the Head of Gold enough to fill a mortal's heart? But if thou must go, then go, and blessing and victory be thine."

Then Oisín held her long in his arms and kissed her, and vowed to make no long stay and never to alight from the fairy steed. And then he shook the golden reins and the horse threw its head aloft and snorted and bore him away in a pace like that of flowing water for speed and smoothness. Anon they came to the margin of the blue sea, and still the white steed galloped on, brushing the crests of the waves into glittering spray. The sun glared upon the sea and Oisín's head swam with the heat and motion, and in mist and dreams he rode where no day was, nor night, nor any thought of time, till at last his horse's hoofs ploughed through wet, yellow sands, and he saw black rocks rising up at each side of a little bay, and inland were fields green or brown, and white cottages thatched with reeds, and men and women, toil-worn and clad in earth-coloured garments, went to and fro about their tasks or stopped gazing at the rider in his crimson cloak and at the golden trappings of his horse. But among the cottages was a small house of stone such as Oisín had never seen in the land of Erinn; stone was its roof as well as the walls, very steep and high, and near-by from a rude frame of timber there hung a bell of bronze. Into this house there passed one whom from his shaven crown Oisín guessed to be a druid, and behind him two lads in white apparel. The druid having seen the horseman turned his eyes again to the ground and passed on, regarding him not, and the lads did likewise. And Oisín rode on, eager to reach the Dún upon the Hill of Allen and to see the faces of his kin and his friends.

"The white steed had vanished from their eyes like a wreath of mist"

At length, coming from the forest path into the great clearing where the Hill of Allen was wont to rise broad and green, with its rampart enclosing many white-walled dwellings, and the great hall towering high in the midst, he saw but grassy mounds overgrown with rank weeds and whin bushes, and among them pastured a peasant's kine.

Then a strange horror fell upon him, and he thought some enchantment from the land of Faery held his eyes and mocked him with false visions. He threw his arms abroad and shouted the names of Finn and Oscar, but none replied, and he thought that perchance the hounds might hear him, and he cried upon Bran and Sceolaun, and strained his ears if they might catch the faintest rustle or whisper of the world from the sight of which his eyes were holden, but he heard only the sigh of the wind in the whins. Then he rode in terror from that place, setting his face towards the eastern sea, for he meant to traverse Ireland from side to side and end to end in the search of some escape from his enchantment. But when he came near to the eastern sea and was now in the place which is called the Valley of the Thrushes, he saw in a field upon the hillside a crowd of men striving to roll aside a great boulder from their tilled land, and an overseer directing them. Towards them he rode, meaning to ask them concerning Finn and the Fianna. As he came near, they all stopped their work to gaze upon him, for to them he appeared like a messenger of the Fairy Folk or an angel from heaven. Taller and mightier he was than the men-folk they knew, with sword-blue eyes and brown ruddy cheeks; in his mouth, as it were, a shower of pearls, and bright hair clustered beneath the rim of his helmet. And as Oisín looked upon their puny forms, marred by toil and care, and at the stone which they feebly strove to heave from its bed, he was filled with pity, and thought to himself, "not such were even the churls of Erinn when I left them for the Land of Youth," and he stooped from his saddle to help them. His hand he set to the boulder, and with a mighty heave he lifted it from where it lay and set it rolling down the hill. And the men raised a shout of wonder and applause, but their shouting changed in a moment into cries of terror and dismay, and they fled, jostling and overthrowing each other to escape from the place of fear; for a marvel horrible to see had taken place. For Oisín's saddle-girth had burst as he heaved the stone, and he fell headlong to the ground. In an instant the white steed had vanished from their eyes like a wreath of mist, and that which rose, feeble and staggering, from the ground was no youthful warrior but a man stricken with extreme old age, white-bearded and withered, who stretched out groping hands and moaned with feeble and bitter cries. And his crimson cloak and yellow silken tunic were now but coarse homespun stuff tied with a hempen girdle, and the gold-hilted sword was a rough oaken staff such as a beggar carries who wanders the roads from farmer's house to house.

When the people saw that the doom that had been wrought was not for them they returned, and found the old man prone on the ground with his face hidden in his arms. So they lifted him up and asked who he was and what had befallen him. Oisín gazed round on them with dim eyes, and at last he said, "I was Oisín the son of Finn, and I pray ye tell me where he now dwells, for his Dún on the Hill of Allen is now a desolation, and I have neither seen him nor heard his hunting horn from the Western to the Eastern Sea." Then the men gazed strangely on each other and on Oisín, and the overseer asked, "Of what Finn dost thou speak, for there be many of that name in Erinn?" Oisín said, "Surely of Finn mac Cumhal mac Trenmor, captain of the Fianna of Erinn." Then the overseer said, "Thou art daft, old man, and thou hast made us daft to take thee for a youth as we did a while agone. But we at least have now our wits again, and we know that Finn son of Cumhal and all his generation have been dead these three hundred years. At the battle of Gowra fell Oscar, son of Oisín, and Finn at the battle of Brea, as the historians tell us; and the lays of Oisín, whose death no man knows the manner of, are sung by our harpers at great men's feasts. But now the Talkenn, Patrick, has come into Ireland and has preached to us the One God and Christ His Son, by whose might these old days and ways are done away with, and Finn and his Fianna, with their feasting and hunting and songs of war and of love, have no such reverence among us as the monks and virgins of holy Patrick, and the psalms and prayers that go up daily to cleanse us from sin and to save us from the fire of judgment." But Oisín replied, half hearing and still less comprehending what was said to him, "If thy God have slain Finn and Oscar, I would say that God is a strong man." Then they all cried out upon him, and some picked up stones, but the overseer bade them let him be until the Talkenn had spoken with him, and till he should order what was to be done.

So they brought him to Patrick, who entreated him gently and hospitably, and to Patrick he told the story of all that had befallen him. But Patrick bade his scribes write all carefully down, that the memory of the heroes whom Oisín had known, and of the joyous and free life they had led in the woods and glens and wild places of Erinn, should never be forgotten among men. And Oisín, during the short span of life that yet remained to him, told to Patrick many tales of the Fianna and their deeds, but of the three hundred years that he had spent with Niam in the Land of Youth he rarely spoke, for they seemed to him but as a vision or a dream of the night, set between a sunny and a rainy day.

Unit – 4: Legends

Arthur, King of the Britons

A biography by David Nash Ford

Arthur, it seems, is claimed as the King of nearly every Celtic Kingdom known. The 6th century certainly saw many men named Arthur born into the Celtic Royal families of Britain but, despite attempts to identify the great man himself amongst them, there can be little doubt that most of these people were only named in his honour. Princes with other names are also sometimes identified with "Arthwyr" which is thought by some to be a title similar to "Vortigern". 

Breton King
Geoffrey of Monmouth recorded Arthur as a High-King of Britain. He was the son of his predecessor, Uther Pendragon and nephew of King Ambrosius. As a descendant of High-King Eudaf Hen's nephew, Conan Meriadoc, Arthur's grandfather, had crossed the Channel from Brittany and established the dynasty at the beginning of the 5th century. The Breton King Aldrien had been asked to rescue Britain from the turmoil in which it found itself after the Roman administration had departed. He sent his brother, Constantine, to help. Constantine appears to have been the historical self-proclaimed British Emperor who took the last Roman troops from Britain in a vain attempt to assert his claims on the Continent in 407. Chronologically speaking, it is just possible he was King Arthur's grandfather. Arthur's Breton Ancestry was recorded by Gallet. 

Riothamus the King
Geoffrey Ashe argues that King Arthur was an historical King in Brittany known to history as Riothamus, a title meaning "Greatest-King". His army is recorded as having crossed the channel to fight the Visigoths in the Loire Valley in 468. Betrayed by the Prefect of Gaul, he later disappeared from history. Ashe does not discuss Riothamus' ancestry. He, in fact, appears quite prominently in the pedigree of the Kings of DomnonŽe, dispite attempts to equate him with a Prince of Cornouaille named Iaun Reith. Riothamus was probably exiled to Britain during one of the many civil wars that plagued Brittany. He later returned in triumph to reclaim his inheritance, but was later killed in an attempt to expel Germanic invaders. The main trouble with this Arthurian identification is that it pushes King Arthur back fifty years from his traditional period at the beginning of the sixth century (See Ashe 1985). 

Dumnonian King
Welsh tradition also sees Arthur as High-King of Britain but tends to follow the genealogies laid down in the Mostyn MS117 and the Bonedd yr Arwr. These show Arthur as grandson of Constantine but, this time, he is Constantine Corneu, the King of Dumnonia. Traditional Arthurian legend records three Kings of Dumnonia during Arthur's reign: Constantine's son, Erbin; grandson, Gereint and great grandson, Cado. Nowhere is there any indication that these three were closely related to Arthur, nor that he had any claim on the Dumnonian Kingdom. Nor is their any explanation as to why a Dumnonian prince would have been raised to the High-Kingship of Britain. Arthur's connection with this area of Britain is purely due to his supposedly being conceived at Tintagel, the residence of his mother's first husband, and buried at Glastonbury, the most ancient Christian site in the country.

Cumbrian King
The Clan Campbell trace their tribal pedigree back to one Arthur ic Uibar: the Arthur son of Uther of tradition. Norma Lorre Goodrich uses this fact to argue that Arthur was a "Man of the North". This idea was first proposed by the Victorian Antiquary, W.F.Skene, and there is some evidence to recommend it, especially the possible northern location of Nennius' twelve battles. Goodrich places Arthur's Court at Carlisle. As the capital of the Northern British Kingdom of Rheged, this seems an unlikely home for Arthur, who was not of this dynasty. Prof. Goodrich relies heavily on late medieval literary sources and draws imaginative conclusions. (See Goodrich 1986 & Skene 1868). 

Pennine King
There was a Northern British King named Arthwys who lived in the previous generation to the traditional Arthur. He was of the line of Coel Hen (the Old) and probably ruled over a large Kingdom in the Pennines. Many of Nennius' Arthurian Battles are often said to have taken place in the Northern Britain. These and other northern stories associated with the King Arthur may, in reality, have been relating the achievements of this near contemporary monarch. 

King of Elmet
Another Northern British Arthwys was the son of Masgwid Gloff, probably a King of the Elmet region of modern West Yorkshire. Nothing is known of this Prince who was exactly contemporary with the real King's traditional period. Though it is unlikely that he held his own kingdom, his exploits may have contributed to King Arthur's story. 

Scottish King
The Scots, though fresh from Ireland, also used the name Arthur for a Royal Prince. Artur, the son of King Aidan of Dalriada, was probably born in the 550s. David F. Carroll has recently argued that this man was the real Arthur, ruling Manau Gododdin from Camelon (alias Camelot) in Stirlingshire. Details can be found on the author's web site. (Carroll 1996) 

Powysian King
Graham Phillips and Martin Keatman identify Arthur as Owain Ddantwyn (White-Tooth), a late 5th century Prince of the House of Cunedda (more specifically of Gwynedd). Their arguments, however, are wholly unconvincing, and contain many unresolved discrepancies. Owain's son, Cuneglasus (known from Welsh pedigrees as Cynlas) was among the five Celtic Kings condemned in the writings of Gildas.

Through a misinterpretation of this account, Keatman & Phillips imply that Cuneglasus was the son of one Arth, ie. Arthur. They further claim that he, and therefore his father, Owain, before him, must have ruled Powys, as this is the only Kingdom un-reconciled with Gildas' Kings. However, Cynlas lived at Din Arth in Rhos. He was not the son of Arth. In traditional Welsh manner the Kingdom of Gwynedd had been divided between his father, Owain, who received Eastern Gwynedd (ie. Rhos) and his uncle, Cadwallon Lawhir (Long-Hand) who took the major Western portion. During this period, Cyngen Glodrydd (the Renowned) was ruling Powys. He was probably the Aurelius Caninus mentioned by Gildas. (See Phillips & Keatman 1992). 

Rhos King
A much simpler and thoroughly more convincing thesis from Mark Devere Davies suggests that Arthur may have been Cuneglasus himself.

Dyfed King
A King Arthwyr ruled in Dyfed in the late 6^th century. He was the son of King Pedr ap Cyngar, but little else is known of him. Though he was probably merely named after the great man, it is possible that some of his accomplishments may have become attached to the traditional legend.

Glamorgan King
Baram Blackett & Alan Wilson have theorised that the legendary King Arthur was an amalgam of two historical characters: Anwn (alias Arthun), the British King who conquered Greece and Athrwys (alias Arthwys) the King of Glywyssing and Gwent. Arthun was a son of the British Emperor Magnus Maximus, who lived in the late 4th century. He is better known as Anwn (alias Dynod) and his title of King of Greece is generally thought to be a misreading of his Latin name, Antonius Gregorius. He actually ruled much of South Wales. Arthwys of Glwyssing & Gwent is widely accepted as a seventh century King who lived in South-East Wales. His home in the traditional Arthurian region around Caerleon is part of this man's attraction. Blackett & Wilson argue, not unconvincingly, that he really lived in the early 6th century and that his father, King Meurig was called "Uther Pendragon", a title meaning Wonderful Commander. They also make the important assertion that Arthur lived, not in Cerniw (ie. Cornwall), but in Cernyw (ie. Glywyssing). (See Blackett & Wilson 1980). 

St. Arthmael the King
Like Blackett & Wilson, Chris Barber & David Pykitt identify the King Arthur with King Athrwys of Glywyssing & Gwent. However, here the similarity stops, for there are important differences in the identification of people, places and events. Their major addition is the supposition that after Camlann, Arthur/Athrwys abdicated and retired to Brittany where he became an important evangeliser. He was known as St. Armel (or Arthmael) and his shrine can still be seen at St.Armel-des-Boschaux. Their ideas have much to commend them and make compelling reading. (See Barber & Pykitt 1993). 

Roman King
It has been suggested, many times over the years, that King Arthur may have been a descendant of one Lucius Artorius Castus: a theme most recently taken up by P.J.F. Turner. Castus was an historical 2nd century Dalmatian general stationed in Britain who commanded the Roman auxiliary troops, known as Sarmations, on an expedition to crush an uprising in Armorica. It is highly unlikely that the two had any connection with each other. (See Turner 1993).

The Holy Grail

The Tradition: The Holy Grail was a vessel used by Christ at the Last Supper. Given to his grand-uncle, St. Joseph of Arimathea, it was used by him to collect Christ's blood and sweat while Joseph tended him on the Cross. After Christ's death, Joseph was apparently imprisoned in a rock tomb similar to the one he had given for the body of his grand-nephew. Left to starve, he was sustained for several years by the power of the Grail which provided him with fresh food and drink every morning. Later, St. Joseph travelled to Britain with his family and several followers. He settled at Ynys Witrin (Glastonbury), but the Grail was taken to Corbenic where it was housed in a spectacular castle, guarded always by the Grail Kings, descendants of Joseph's daughter, Anna (Enygeus) and her husband, Brons.

Centuries later, the location of the Great Castle of Corbenic became forgotten. At the Court of King Arthur, however, it was prophesied that the Grail would one day be rediscovered by a descendant of St. Joseph: the best knight in the land, the only man capable of sitting in the mysterious Siege Perilous. When such a man arrived in the form of Galahad, the son of Lancelot, along with a miraculous, though brief, vision of the Grail itself, a quest to find this holiest of relics began. Through many adventures and many years, the Knights of the Round Table crossed Britain from one end to another in their search. Perceval (Peredyr) discovered the castle in a land that was sickly like its spear-wounded King. When entertained by this "Fisher" or "Grail King", however, he failed to ask of the grail and left empty-hand. Lancelot next reached Corbenic, but was prevented from entering because of he was an adulterer. Finally Galahad arrived. He was permitted entry to the Grail Chapel and allowed to gaze upon the great cup. His life became complete and together grail and man were lifted up to heaven.

The Names: The Holy Grail first appears as simply "a grail" in the works of Chrétien de Troyes. The word is probably derived from the Old French word graal meaning a "broad and capacious dish or salver". Though usually thought of as being a cup or chalice, the Grail has indeed been variously described as a platter, dish, a cornucopia, horn of plenty or even a book or a stone.

The name of the Castle of Corbenic has competing explanations. Old Welsh Cors, meaning "Horn," the Horn of Plenty as the Grail is sometimes described may have become confused with the Old French Corps, producing Corps-Benoit meaning "Holy Body," ie. the Body of Christ. More likely, however, is the suggestion that Corbenic stems from Corbin-Vicus. The ending is almost certainly derived from the Latin for "Settlement," while Corben is a French translation of the word Crow or Raven: Bran in Welsh. This was also a man's name and, as Brons, he appears as St. Joseph's son-in-law, one of the first Grail Kings. Hence Corbenic was "Bran's Settlement". It may be identical to the home of Lancelot's father, Caer-Benwick.

Ancient Origins: The quest for a divine vessel was a popular theme in Arthurian legend long before medieval writers introduced the Holy Grail to British mythology. It appears in the Mabinogion tale of Culhwch and Olwen, but particularly well-known is the story of the Preiddeu Annwfn or "Spoils of the Otherworld" as recounted by Taliesin. Arthur and his warriors sail off to the Celtic Otherworld to capture the pearl-rimmed Cauldron of Annwfn: like the grail it was a giver of plenty, but also of prophecy. It was at last discovered at Caer-Siddi (or Wydyr), an island bound castle of glass, where it was guarded by nine divine maidens; but the ensuing perils were too much for even Arthur's men. The mission was abandoned and only seven of their number returned home.

Celtic Cauldrons were used in ceremonial feasting as early as the Late Bronze Age. Ritual deposits in Llyn Fawr (Glamorgan) included such vessels, though the best known example is the Gundestrup Cauldron found in the peat bogs of Jutland (Denmark). Highly decorated with portraits of many Celtic deities, this vessel would once have held up to twenty-eight and a half gallons of liquid. These finds clearly point to the religious importance of cauldrons, as found in the Arthurian stories and even older Celtic mythological parallels.

The magic Otherworld vessel was the Cauldron of Ceridwen, the Celtic Goddess of Inspiration. She is remembered today in the archetypal hideous cauldron-stirring witch. She once set about brewing a drink of knowledge and wisdom for her hideous son, but her kitchen-boy, Gwion, accidentally tasted the concoction, preventing anyone else from benefitting from its affects. A great battle of wills ensued, for Gwion now held all the knowledge to escape the Goddess' wrath. The two changed themselves into various animals in an attempt to outwit each other before Gwion was swallowed whole as a grain of wheat. He was eventually reborn as the great bard, Taliesin!

The cauldron then reappears in the story of Bran Fendigaid (the Blessed), not only as a vessel of knowledge and plenty, but also of rebirth. The great Celtic warrior God, Bran, obtained his life-giving vessel from a giantess (or thinly veiled Ceridwen) who had been expelled from a Lake in Ireland. The Emerald Isle here personifies the Celtic Otherworld. The magic vessel would restore to life the body of any dead warrior placed within it: a scene apparently depicted on the Gundestrup Cauldron. Bran's sister marries the King of Ireland and they are given the cauldron as a wedding gift. However, when hostilities between the two countries break out, Bran travels across the ocean to regain this dangerous prize. He is eventually successful, but is wounded by a poisoned spear and, like Arthur, only seven of his men return home. The name, the castle (already discussed), the wound, the mystic vessel, the journey: Bran Fendigaid is clearly Brons, the Grail King, son-in-law of Joseph of Arimathea.

ROBIN HOOD OF SHERWOOD FOREST

In this our spacious isle I think there is not one,

But he of ROBIN HOOD hath heard and Little John;

And to the end of time the tales shall ne'er be done

Of Scarlock, George a Green, and Much the miller's son,

Of Tuck, the merry friar, which many a sermon made

In praise of ROBIN HOOD, his outlaws and their trade.

DRAYTON.

EVERY reader of "Ivanhoe," at the mention of Richard the Crusader, will be reminded of Robin Hood, the noble outlaw of Sherwood Forest, and his band of merry bowmen. With these we next concern ourselves, and if the reader will pardon the dry outlines of the historian before proceeding to the more interesting and imaginative story of the ballad−singer, we will at first state what so careful an antiquary as Mr. Ritson considers to be truly trustworthy in Robin Hood's history.

Robin Hood was born at Locksley, in the county of Nottingham, in the reign of King Henry II, and about the year of Christ 1160. His extraction was noble, and his true name Robert Fitzooth, which vulgar pronunciation easily corrupted into Robin Hood. He is frequently styled, and commonly reputed to have been, Earl of Huntingdon; a title to which, in the latter part of his life at least, he actually appears to have had some sort of pretension. In his youth he is reported to have been of a wild and extravagant disposition, insomuch that, his inheritance being consumed or forfeited by his excesses, and his person outlawed for debt, either from necessity or choice he sought an asylum in the woods and forests, with which immense tracts, especially in the northern part of the kingdom, were at that time covered. Of these he chiefly affected Barnsdale, in Yorkshire; Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and, according to some, Plompton Park in Cumberland. Here he either found or was afterwards joined by a number of persons in similar circumstances, who appear to have considered and obeyed him as their chief or leader.... Having for a long series of years maintained a sort of independent sovereignty, and set kings, judges, and magistrates at defiance, a proclamation was published, offering a considerable reward for bringing him in either dead or alive; which, however, seems to have been productive of no greater success than former attempts for that purpose. At length the infirmities of old age increasing upon him, and desirous to be relieved, in a fit of sickness, by being let blood, he applied for that purpose to the prioress of Kirkley nunnery in Yorkshire, his relative (women, and particularly religious women, being in those times somewhat better skilled in surgery than the sex is at present), by whom he was treacherously suffered to bleed to death. This event happened on the 18th November, 1247, being the thirty−first year of King Henry III.; and if the date assigned to his birth be correct, about the eighty−seventh year of his age. He was interred under some trees at a short distance from the house; a stone being placed over his grave, with an inscription to his memory. There are some who will have it that Robin Hood was not alive in the reign of Richard I., and who will have it that he preferred other forests to Sherwood. But the stories that we have chosen are of the Robin Hood of Sherwood Forest and of King Richard the Lion−hearted.

LITTLE JOHN.

The lieutenant of Robin Hood's band was named Little John, not so much from his smallness in stature (for he was seven feet high and more), as for a reason which I shall tell later. And the manner in which Robin Hood, to whom he was very dear, met him was this. Robin Hood on one occasion being hunting with his men and finding the sport to be poor, said: "We have had no sport now for some time. So I go abroad alone. And if I should fall into any peril whence I cannot escape I will blow my horn that ye may know of it and bear me aid." And with that he bade them adieu and departed alone, having with him his bow and the arrows in his quiver. And passing shortly over a brook by a long bridge he met at the middle a stranger. And neither of the two would give way to the other. And Robin Hood being angry fitted an arrow to his bow and made ready to fire. "Truly," said the stranger at this, "thou art a fine fellow that you must draw your long bow on me who have but a staff by me." "That is just truly," said

Robin; "and so I will lay by my bow and get me a staff to try if your deeds be as good as your words." And with that he went into a thicket and chose him a small ground oak for a staff and returned to the stranger. "Now," said he, "I am a match for you, so let us play upon this bridge, and if one should fall in the stream the other will have the victory." "With all my heart," said the stranger; "I shall not be the first to give out." And with that they began to make great play with their staves. And Robin Hood first struck the stranger such a blow as warmed all his blood, and from that they rattled their sticks as though they had been threshing corn.

And finally the stranger gave Robin such a crack on his crown that he broke his head and the blood flowed. But this only urged him the more, so that he attacked the stranger with such vigor that he had like to have made an end of him. But he growing into a fury finally fetched him such a blow that he tumbled him from the bridge into the brook. Whereat the stranger laughed loudly and long, and cried out to him, "Where art thou now, I prythee, my good fellow?" And Robin replied, "Thou art truly a brave soul, and I will have no more to do with thee to−day; so our battle is at an end, and I must allow that thou hast won the day." And then wading to the bank he pulled out his horn and blew a blast on it so that the echoes flew throughout the valley. And at that came fifty bold bowmen out of the wood, all clad in green, and they made for Robin Hood, and said William Stukely, "What is the matter, my master? you are wet to the skin?" "Truly, nothing is the matter," said Robin, "but that the lad on the bridge has tumbled me into the stream." And on that the archers would have seized the stranger to duck him as well, but Robin Hood forbade them. "No one shall harm thee, friend," said he.

 "These are all my bowmen, threescore and nine, and if you will be one of us you shall straightway have my livery and accoutrements, fit for a man. What say you?" "With all my heart," said the stranger; "here is my hand on it. My name is John Little, and I will be a good man and true to you." "His name shall be changed," said William Stukely on this. "We will call him Little John, and I will be his godfather." So they fetched a pair of fat does and some humming strong ale, and there they christened their babe Little John, for he was seven feet high and an ell round at his waist.

FRIAR TUCK.

Now Robin Hood had instituted a day of mirth for himself and all his companions, and wagers were laid amongst them who should exceed at this exercise and who at that; some did contend who should jump farthest, some who should throw the bar, some who should be swiftest afoot in a race five miles in length; others there were with which Little John was most delighted, who did strive which of them should draw the strongest bow, and be the best marksman. "Let me see," said Little John, "which of you can kill a buck, and who can kill a doe, and who is he can kill a hart, being distant from it by the space of five hundred feet." With that, Robin Hood going before them, they went directly to the forest, where they found good store of game feeding before them.

William Scarlock, that drew the strongest bow of them all, did kill a buck, and Little John made choice of a barren fat doe, and the well−directed arrow did enter in the very heart of it; and Midge, the miller's son, did kill a hart above five hundred feet distant from him. The hart falling, Robin Hood stroked him gently on the shoulder, and said unto him, "God's blessing on thy heart, I will ride five hundred miles to find a match for thee." William Scarlock, hearing him speak these words, smiled and said unto him, "Master, what needs that? Here is a Curtal Friar* not far off, that for a hundred pound will shoot at what distance yourself will propound, either with Midge or with yourself. An experienced man he is, and will draw a bow with great strength; he will shoot with yourself, and with all the men you have, one after another."

"The Curtal Friar," Dr. Stukely says, "is Cordelier, from the cord or rope which they wore round their waist, to whip themselves with. They were," adds he, "of the Franciscan order. Our Friar, however, is undoubtedly so called from his Curtal dogs, or curs, as we now say." Thoms. Early Prose Romances: in which, by the way, may be found many of the tales of Robin Hood printed here, and much more besides of interest. "Sayest thou so, Scarlock?" replied Robin Hood. "By the grace of God I will neither eat nor drink till I see this Friar thou dost speak of." And having prepared himself for his journey, he took Little John and fifty of his best archers with him, whom he bestowed in a convenient place, as he himself thought fitting. This being done, he ran down into the dale, where he found the Curtal Friar walking by the water side. He no sooner espied him, but presently he took unto him his broadsword and buckler, and put on his head a steel bonnet.

The Friar, not knowing who he was, or for what intent he came, did presently arm himself to encounter with him. Robin Hood, coming near unto him, alighted from his horse, which he tied to a thorn that grew hard by, and looking wistfully on the Friar, said unto him, "Carry me over the water, thou Curtal Friar, or else thy life lies at the stake." The Friar made no more ado, but took up Robin Hood and carried him on his back; deep water he did stride; he spake not so much as one word to him, but having carried him over, he gently laid him down on the side of the bank; which being done, the Friar said to Robin Hood, "It is now thy turn; therefore carry me over the water, thou bold fellow, or sure I shall make thee repent it." Robin Hood, to requite the courtesy, took the Friar on his back, and not speaking the least word to him, carried him over the water, and laid him gently down on the side of the bank; and turning to him, he spake unto him as at first, and bade him carry him over the water once more, or he should answer it with the forfeit of his life.

The Friar in a smiling manner took him up, and spake not a word till he came in the midst of the stream, when, being up to the middle and higher, he did shake him from off his shoulders, and said unto him, "Now choose thee, bold fellow, whether thou wilt sink or swim." Robin Hood, being soundly washed, got him up on his feet, and prostrating himself, did swim to a bush of

broom on the other side of the bank; and the Friar swam to a willow tree which was not far from it. Then Robin Hood, taking his bow in his hand, and one of his best arrows, did shoot at the Friar, which the Friar received in his buckler of steel, and said unto him, "Shoot on, thou bold fellow; if thou shootest at me a whole summer's day I will stand your mark still." "That will I," said Robin Hood, and shot arrow after arrow at him, until he had not an arrow left in his quiver. He then laid down his bow, and drew out his sword, which but two days before had been the death of three men. Now hand to hand they went with sword and buckler; the steel buckler defends whatsoever blow is given; sometimes they make at the head, sometimes at the foot, sometimes at the side; sometimes they strike directly down, sometimes they falsify their blows, and come in foot and arm, with a free thrust at the body; and being ashamed that so long they exercise their unprofitable valor and cannot hurt one another, they multiply their blows, they hack, they hew, they slash, they foam. At last Robin Hood desired the Friar to hold his hand, and to give him leave to blow his horn.

"Thou wantest breath to sound it," said the Friar; "take thee a little respite, for we have been five hours at it by the Fountain Abbey clock." Robin Hood took his horn from his side, and having sounded it three times, behold where fifty lusty men, with their bended bows, came to his assistance. The Friar, wondering at it, "Whose men," said he, "be these?" "They are mine," said Robin Hood; "what is that to thee?" "False loon," said the Friar; and making a little pause, he desired Robin Hood to show him the same courtesy which he gave him. "What is that?" said Robin Hood. "Thou soundest thy horn three times," said the Friar; "let me now but whistle three times." "Ay, with all my heart," said Robin Hood; "I were to blame if I should deny thee that courtesy." With that the Friar set his fist to his mouth, and whistled three times so shrilly that the place echoed again with it; and behold three and fifty fair ban−dogs (their hair rising on their back, betokening their rage), were almost on the backs of Robin Hood and his companions. "Here is for every one of thy men a dog," said the Friar, "and two for thee." "That is foul play," said Robin Hood. He had scarce spoken that word but two dogs came upon him at once, one before, another behind him, who, although they could not touch his flesh (his sword had made so swift a despatch of them), yet they tore his coat into two pieces. By this time the men had so laid about them that the dogs began to fly back, and their fury to languish into barking. Little John did so bestir himself, that the Curtal Friar, admiring at his courage and his nimbleness, did ask him who he was.

He made him answer, "I will tell the truth, and not lie. I am he who is called Little John, and de belong to Robin Hood, who hath fought with thee this day, five hours together; and if thou wilt not submit unto him, this arrow shall make thee." The Friar, perceiving how much he was overpowered, and that it was impossible for him to deal with so many at once, did come to composition with Robin Hood. And the articles of agreement were these: That the Friar should abandon Fountain Dale and Fountain Abbey, and should live with Robin Hood, at his place not far from Nottingham, where for saying of mass, he should receive a noble for every Sunday through out the year, and for saying mass on every holy day, a new change of garment. The Friar, contented with these conditions, did seal the agreement. And thus by the courage of Robin Hood and his yeomen, he was enforced at the last to submit, having for seven long years kept Fountain Dale, not all the power thereabouts being able to bring him on his knees.

But Friar Tuck was the only man of the clergy with whom Robin had friendly dealings. As a rule these churchmen fared as did the Bishop of Hereford in the following ballad, which we add for the sake of an example of the manner in which this True History of Robin Hood has come down to us from the year 1245:−

ROBIN HOOD AND HIS ADVENTURES.

"They say he is already in the forest of Arden, and a many merry men with him; and there they live like the old Robin Hood of England... and fleet the time carelessly as they did in the golden world."− AS YOU LIKE IT.

AS has been already said, some of the ballad makers have so far erred from the truth as to represent Robin Hood as being outlawed by Henry VIII., and several stories are told of Queen Katherine's interceding with her husband for the pardon of the bold outlaw.* However this may be, it is known that Robin Hood once shot a match on the queen's side against the king's archers, and here is the story:−

This seems to have been the opinion of the author from whom we draw the following account of our hero's life,− to show how the doctors will disagree even on a topic as important as Robin Hood:−

THE NOBLE BIRTH AND THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF ROBIN HOOD.

"Robin Hood was descended from the noble family of the Earl of Huntingdon, and being outlawed by Henry VIII. for many extravagancies and outrages he had committed, he did draw together a company of such bold and licentious persons as himself, who lived for the most part on robberies committed in or near unto Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire. He had these always ready at his command, so that if need did require he at the winding of his horn would have fifty or more of them in readiness to assist him. He whom he most affected was called Little John by reason of his low stature, though not inferior to any of them in strength of body and stoutness of spirit. He would not entertain any into his service whom he had not first fought with himself and made sufficient trial of his courage and dexterity how to use his weapons, which was the reason that oftentimes he came home hurt and beaten as he was; which was nevertheless no occasion of the diminution of his love to the person whom he fought with, for ever afterwards he would be the more familiar with him, and better respect him for it. Many petitions were referred to the king for a pardon for him, which the king (understanding of the many mad pranks he and his associates played) would give no ear unto; but being attended with a considerable guard, did make a progress himself to find him out and bring him to condign punishment. At last, by the means and mediation of Queen Katherine the king's wrath was qualified, and his pardon sealed, and he spent his old age in peace, at a house of his own, not far from Nottingham, being generally beloved and respected by all."

Robin Hood on one occasion sent a present to Queen Katherine with which she was so pleased that she swore she would be a friend to the noble outlaw as long as she might live. So one day the queen went to her chamber and called to her a page of her company and bade him make haste and prepare to ride to Nottinghamshire to find Robin Hood in Sherwood Forest; for the queen had made a match with the king, her archers against his archers, and the queen proposed to have Robin Hood and his band to shoot on her side against the king's archers.

Now as for the page, he started for Nottingham and posted all the way, and inquired on the road for Robin Hood, where he might be, but he could not find any one who could let him know exactly. So he took up his quarters at an inn at Nottingham. And in the room of the inn he sat him down and called for a bottle of Rhenish wine, and he drank the queen's health out of it. Now at his side was sitting a yeoman of the country, clad in Lincoln green, with a long bow in his hand. And he turned to the page and asked him, "What is thy business, my sweet boy, so far in the north country, for methinks you must come from London?" So then the page told him that it was his business to find Robin Hood the outlaw, and for that he asked every yeoman that he met. And he asked his friend if he knew anything which might help him. "Truly," said the yeoman, "that I do. And if you will get to horse early to−morrow morning I will show you Robin Hood and all his gay yeomen."

So the next morning they got them to horse and rode out into the forest, and the yeoman brought the page to where were Robin Hood and his yeomen. And the page fell down on his knee and said to Robin Hood, "Queen Katherine greets you well by me, and hath sent you this ring as a token. She bids you post up to London town, for that there shall be some sport there in which she has a mind you shall have a hand." And at this Robin took off his mantle of Lincoln green from his back and sent it by the page to Queen Katherine with a promise that he and his band would follow him as soon as they might.

So Robin Hood clothed all his men in Lincoln green and himself in scarlet, and each man wore a black hat with a white feather stuck therein. And thus Robin Hood and his band came up to London. And Robin fell down on his knees before the queen, and she bade him welcome with all his band. For the match between the queen's archers and the king's was to come off the next day in Finsbury fields.

Here first came the king's archers marching with bold bearing, and then came Robin Hood and his archers for the queen. And they laid out the marks there. And the king laid a wager with the queen on the shooting. Now the wager was three hundred tun of Rhenish, and three hundred tun of good English beer, and three hundred fat harts. So then the queen asked if there were any knights with the king who would take her side. But they were unwilling, for said they, "How shall we bet on these men whom we have never seen, when we know Clifton and the rest of the king's archers, and have seen them shoot?" Now this Clifton was one of the king's archers and a great boaster. And when he had reached the shooting field he had cried out, "Measure no marks for us, my lord the king, for we will shoot at the sun and moon." But for all that Robin Hood beat him at the shooting. And the queen asked the Bishop of Herefordshire to back her archers. But he swore by his mitre that he would not bet a single penny on the queen's archers for he knew them not. "What will you bet against them," asked Robin Hood at this, "since you think our shooting is the worse?" "Truly," said the bishop, "I will bet all the money that may be in my purse," and he pulled it up from where it hung at his side. "What is in your purse?" asked Robin Hood. And the bishop tossed it down on the ground saying, "Fifteen rose−nobles, and that's an hundred pound." So Robin Hood tossed out a bag beside the bishop's purse on the green.

And with that they began shooting, and shot three bouts and they came out even; the king's and the queen's. "The next three shots," said the king, "shall pay for all." And so the king's archers shot, and then Robin Hood, and Little John and Midge the miller's son shot for the queen, and came every man of them nearer the prick in the willow wand than did any of the king's men. So the queen's archers having beaten, Queen Katherine asked a boon of the king, and he granted it. "Give me, I pray you," said the queen, "safe conduct for the archers of my party to come and to go home and to stay in London here some time to enjoy themselves." "I grant it," said the king. "Then you are welcome, Robin Hood," said the queen, "and so is Little John and Midge the miller's son and every one of you." "Is this Robin Hood?" asked the king, "for I had heard that he was killed in a quarrel in the north country." And the bishop too asked, "Is this Robin Hood? If I had known that I would not have bet a penny with him. He took me one Saturday evening and bound me fast to a tree, and there he made me sing a mass for him and his yeomanry about." "Well, if I did," said Robin Hood, "surely I needed all the masses that I might get for my soul." And with that he and his yeomanry departed, and when their safe conduct was expired they journeyed north again to Sherwood Forest.

ROBIN HOOD AND THE BEGGAR.

But Robin Hood, once having supplied himself with good store of money, which he had gotten of the sheriff of Nottingham, bought him a stout gelding, and riding on him one day towards Nottingham, it was his fortune to meet with a poor beggar. Robin Hood was of a frolic spirit, and no accepter of persons; but observing the beggar to have several sorts of bags, which were fastened to his patched coat, he did ride up to him, and giving him the time of day, he demanded of him what countryman he was. "A Yorkshireman," said the beggar; "and I would desire of you to give me something." "Give thee!" said Robin Hood; "why, I have nothing to give thee. I am a poor ranger in the forest, and thou seemest to be a lusty knave; shall I give thee a good bastinado over thy shoulders?" "Content, content," said the beggar; "I durst lay all my bags to a threaden joust, thou wilt repent it." With that Robin Hood alighted, and the beggar, with his long quarterstaff, so well defended himself, that, let Robin Hood do what he could, he could not come within the beggar, to flash him to a remembrance of his overboldness; and nothing vexed him more than to find that the beggar's staff was as hard and as obdurate as iron itself; but not so Robin Hood's head, for the beggar with all his force did let his staff descend with such a side blow, that Robin Hood, for all his skill, could not defend it, but the blood came trickling down his face, which, turning Robin Hood's courage into revenge and fury, he let fly at him with his trusty sword, and doubled blow upon blow; but perceiving that the beggar did hold him so hard to it that one of his blows was but the forerunner of another, and every blow to be almost the Postilion of Death, he cried out to him to hold his hand. "That will I not do," said the beggar, "unless thou wilt resign unto me thy horse, and thy sword, and thy clothes, with all the money thou hast in thy pockets." "The change is uneven," said Robin Hood, "but for once I am content."

So, putting on the beggar's clothes, the beggar was the gentleman, and Robin Hood was the beggar, who, entering into Nottingham town with his patched coat and several wallets, understood that three brethren were that day to suffer at the gallows, being condemned for killing the king's deer, he made no more ado, but went directly to the sheriff's house, where a young gentleman, seeing him to stand at the door, demanded of him what he would have. Robin Hood returned answer that he came to crave neither meat nor drink, but the lives of these three brothers who were condemned to die. "That cannot be," said the young gentleman, "for they are all this day to suffer according to law, for stealing of the king's deer, and they are already conveyed out of the town to the place of execution." "I will be with them presently," said Robin Hood, and coming to the gallows he found many making great lamentation for them. Robin Hood did comfort them, and assured them they should not die; and blowing his horn, behold on a sudden a hundred brave archers came unto him, by whose help, having released the prisoners, and killed the, hangman, and hurt many of the sheriff's officers, they took those who were condemned to die for killing the king's deer along with them, who, being very thankful for the preservation of their lives, became afterwards of the yeomanry of Robin Hood.

ROBIN HOOD AND KING RICHARD.

Now King Richard, hearing of the deeds of Robin Hood and his men, wondered much at them, and desired greatly himself to see him, and his men as well. So he with a dozen of his lords rode to Nottingham town and there took up his abode. And being at Nottingham, the king one day with his lords put on friars' gowns every one, and rode forth from Fountain Abbey down to Barnsdale. And as they were riding there they saw Robin Hood and all his band standing ready to assail them. The king, being taller than the rest, was thought by Robin to be the abbot. So he made up to him, and seized his horse by the head, and bade him stand. "For," said he, "it is against such knaves as you that I am bound to make war." "But," said the king himself, "we are messengers from the king, who is but a little away, waiting to speak with you." "God save the king," said Robin Hood, "and all his well−wishers. And accursed be every one who may deny his sovereignty." "You are cursing yourself," said the king, "for you are a traitor." "Now," said Robin Hood, "if you were not the king's messenger, I would make you rue that word of yours. I am as true a man to the king as lives. And I never yet injured any honest man and true, but only those who make their living by stealing from others. I have never in my life harmed either husbandman or huntsman. But my chief spite lies against the clergy, who have in these days great power. But I am right glad to have met you here. Come with me, and you shall taste our greenwood cheer." But the king and his lords marvelled, wondering what kind of cheer Robin might provide for them. And Robin took the king's horse by the head, and led him towards his tent. "It is because thou comest from the king," said he, "that I use you in this wise; and hadst thou as much gold as ever I had, it should be all of it safe for good King Richard's sake." And with that he took out his horn, and blew on it a loud blast. And thereat came marching forth from the wood five score and ten of Robin's followers, and each one bent the knee before Robin Hood. "Surely," thought the king, "it is a goodly sight to see; for they are more humble to their master than my servants are to me, Here may the court learn something from the greenwood." And here they laid a dinner for the king and his lords, and the king swore that he had never feasted better. Then Robin Hood, taking a can of ale, said, "Let us now begin, each man with his can. Here's a health to the king." And they all drank the health to the king, the king himself, as well as another.

And after the dinner they all took their bows, and showed the king such archery that the king said he had never seen such men as they in any foreign land. And then said the king to Robin Hood, "If I could get thee a pardon from King Richard, wouldst thou serve the king well in everything?" "Yes, with all my heart," said Robin. And so said all his men.

And with that the king declared himself to them, and said, "I am the king, your sovereign, that is now before you." And at this Robin and all his men fell down on their knees; but the king raised them up, saying to them that he pardoned each one of them, and that they should every one of them be in his service. So the king returned to Nottingham, and with him returned Robin Hood and his men, to the great joy of the townspeople, whom they had for a long time sorely vexed.

"And they are gone to London court, Robin Hood and all his train;

He once was there a noble peer, And now he's there again."

THE DEATH OF ROBIN HOOD.

But Robin Hood returned to Sherwood Forest, and there met his death. For one day, being wounded in a fight, he fled out of the battle with Little John. And being at some distance, Robin Hood said to his lieutenant, "Now truly I cannot shoot even one shot more, for the arrows will not fly. For I am sore wounded. So I will go to my cousin, the abbess, who dwelleth near here in Kirkley Hall, and she shall bleed me, that I may be well again." So Robin Hood left Little John, and he went his way to Kirkley; and reaching the Hall, his strength nearly left him, yet he knocked heavily at the door. And his cousin came down first to let him in. And when she saw him she knew that it was her cousin Robin Hood, and she received him with a joyful face. Then said Robin, "You see me, my cousin, how weak I am. Therefore I pray you to bleed me, that I may be whole again." And his cousin took him by the hand, and led him into an upper room, and laid him on a bed, and she bled him. But the treacherous woman tied not up the vein again, but left him so that his life began to flow from him. And he, finding his strength leaving him, thought to escape; but he could not, for the door was locked, and the casement window was so high that he might not leap down from it. Then, knowing that he must die, he reached forth his hand to his bugle horn, which lay by him on the bed. And setting the horn to his mouth, be blew weakly, though with all his strength, three blasts upon it. And Little John, as he sat under the tree in the greenwood, heard his blowing, and he said, "Now must Robin be near death, for his blast is very weak."

And he got up and ran to Kirkley Hall as fast as he might. And coming to the door, he found it locked; but he broke it down, and so came to Robin Hood. And coming to the bed, he fell upon his knees, and said, "Master, I beg a boon of thee,− that thou lettest me burn down Kirkley Hall and all the nunnery." "Nay," quoth Robin Hood; "nay, I cannot grant you your boon; for never in my life did I hurt woman, or man in woman's company, nor shall it be done when I die. But for me, give me my long bow, and I will let fly an arrow, and where you shall find the arrow, there bury me. And make my grave long and broad, that I may rest easily; and place my head upon a green sod, and place my bow at my side." And these words Little John readily promised him, so that Robin Hood was pleased. And they buried him as he had asked, an arrow−shot from Kirkley Hall.

Unit – 5: Hindu Mythology

1. Stories from Ramayana

Story of Maricha Golden Deer in Ramayana

Maricha, one of the characters in Ramayana, plays the most notable role in Ravana’s kidnapping of Sita. Once, demon Sunda (son of Jamba or Jharjha) attacked the hermitage of Agasthya Rishi. The angry sage burnt him by his meditative powers. On Sunda’s death, his wife Yaksha Thataka and his sons Mareecha and Subahu attacked Agastya. The sage cursed them to become demons.

Vishwamitra’s Yajna

Sage Vishwamitra was performing a sacrifice. He was tormented by Tataka and her sons. Visvamitra approached Dasaratha, the king of Ayodhya, and requested him to send his eldest son, Rama to protect his sacrifice. Though with reluctance, Dasaratha sent 13-year old Rama and his younger brother Lakshmana with Visvamitra. Near the forest of Tataka, the demoness attacked them. Rama, aided by Lakshamana, slew her with his arrow. Vishvamitra reached his ashram and began his sacrifice. On the sixth day, Maricha and his brother Subahu, appeared and tried to destroy the sacrificial fire. Rama fired his arrow and Maricha was thrown hundred leagues away. The sacrifice was completed successfully. Under the guidance of Visvamitra, Rama wed Sita, the adopted daughter of Janaka and the princess of Mithila.

Maricha fight with Rama in Dandakaranya

Later, Dasaratha directed Rama for an exile in forest for 14 years, at the behest of Rama's step mother Kaikeyi. Rama proceeded to forest. Lakshmana and Sita followed him. The trio travelled through the Dandaka forest to the banks of the river Godavari, where they built a hermitage at Panchavati. Once, Maricha saw them and attacked them to wreak vengeance. Rama killed Maricha's allies, but his arrow narrowly missed Maricha, who fled. Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana, requested Rama to marry her. Rama refused and directed her to Lakshmana. Lakshmana joked at her. Surpanakha attacked Sita. Lakshmana cut out her ears and nose. Surpanakha reached Lanka and prompted Ravana to steal Sita.

Story Maricha Golden Deer Ramayana

Ravana went to meet his uncle, Maricha. He told Maricha to turn into a golden deer with silver spots and graze near Rama's ashram. On seeing the deer, Sita would surely tell Rama and Lakshamana to catch it. When they would leave Sita alone, Ravana would abduct her. Rama, aggrieved by Sita's separation, would be easily killed by Ravana. Maricha dissuaded Ravana. Ravana reiterated his plan and finally Maricha agreed.

Maricha’s disguise as Golden Deer

Maricha and Ravana flew to Panchavati. Maricha assumed the form of a beautiful golden deer, which had silver spots. It appeared in the vicinity of Rama's ashram. Sita was collecting flowers. The golden deer lured Sita, who called Rama and Lakshmana to see it. Lakshmana sensed foul play and suggested that the deer was Maricha. Sita persuaded Rama to get her the deer. Rama asked Lakshmana to take care of Sita and went after the deer. Maricha ran, followed by Rama. After a long chase, Rama shot him down. Maricha took his real form and cried out mimicking Rama's voice "Oh Sita! Oh Lakshmana!" Sita asked Lakshmana to go and search for Rama. Lakshmana insisted that no one could harm Rama. Worried Sita ordered Lakshmana to go. Lakshmana reluctantly left. Immediately, Ravana appeared as a mendicant. Sita stepped forward to give him alms and he kidnapped her.

The Burning of Lanka

Ravana was shocked and amazed to learn that Akshay Kumar had been killed and wondered about the power of the monkey who killed him. He sent his son Meghnad and told him not to kill the monkey but capture him and bring him to court so that he could see him and find out who had sent him.

Meghnad took a chariot and soldiers to confrontHanuman who was busy destroying the gardens. Meghnad challenged Hanuman and a fierce battle ensues. In spite of using all his strength, he could not overpower Hanuman. So he used the amogh Bramhpash, the noose that cannot miss its aim, towards Hanuman who gets caught in it.

As the noose belongs to Brahma, Hanuman respected it and did not break out of it, Meghnad dragged the captiveHanuman through the streets of Lanka as he lead him to Ravana. People thronged to view the vanara (monkey) who had destroyed Ashok Vatika (garden of Ashoka trees).

To Ravana, Hanuman introduced himself as a messenger of Rama. Enraged,Ravana ordered him to be killed at once. But, Vibheeshan, as a minister of court said that messengers couldn’t be killed. ThenRavana said that monkeys are very fond of their tails so we will tie rags around his tail and set it on fire after dipping it in oil. As they began wrapping cloth around his tail, Hanuman made his tail grow longer till in fact all the cloth in Lanka is used up. When his tail was set on fire, Hanuman took on a small form and jumped on the terrace of the royal palace. Then he set all the buildings on fire. There was chaos all over Lanka asHanuman set the entire city on fire. Then he returned to Sita in Ashok Vatika (garden of Ashoka trees). He asked Sita to give something that would indicate he had met her. Sita took off her Choodamani (armlet) and gave him and said if Rama does not come there in a month, she would kill herself.

Hanuman crossed the ocean again and rejoined his group and told them the tale of his burning of Lanka (Lanka dahan) with his tail. They were all happy and celebrated with a feast of fruits from Sugreeva’s orchard. Hanuman then bowed down before Rama and gave him Sita’s message and the choodamani (armlet). Shri Rama embraced him and said, “I will be indebted to you forever.”

Now Rama consulted with Sugreeva, Jambavat and others about the formation of the army. Soon the entire army led by Rama and Lakshmana was on their way southward. The huge army crossed mountains and valleys and a few days later, they reached the shore of the sea and set camp there. Now the problem was to decide how the entire army of monkeys and bears would cross the ocean. A consultation was held for the options.

2. Stories from Mahabharatha

The Kurukshetra War in Mahabharat lasts 18 days, with the Pandavas having 7 Akshaunis or divisions and the Kauravas having 11 Akshaunis, totaling 18 Akshaunis again. Before the war begins, Krishna gives Arjuna the teaching of the Gita and the Vishwaroopa darshan. Here is a day-by-day account of important events. If you need to brush up on your Mahabharat, try these free ebooks and summary of the whole epic.

Day 1

On the morning of that momentous day the battle began which led the death of many noble warriors. All of the Kaurava army, uncaring about their very lives, rushed with raised flags and standards against the Pandavas, and the Pandava army stood against them with cheering hearts, Bhima leading them.

Duryodhana and his brothers surrounded Bhima, shooting arrows at him. Then Draupadi’s five sons with the twins Nakula and Sahadeva and Abhimanyu, Arjuna’s son, rushed against the Kaurava army, tearing them with their arrows.

On that first day Uttara, Virata's son –who was driven by Arjuna – was struck by Shalya, King of Madra, and was killed.

Dushasana fought Nakula, attempting to strike him with many an arrow, but Nakula cut down these arrows, the standard and the bow of his enemy.

Yudishtira fought Shalya, while Drishtadyumna sought Drona in battle.

The King of Panchala fought the King of Sind and the battle between them was fierce and terrible.

Day 2

On the second day the battle raged again, neither side prevailing over the other but the Kaurava forces lost many soldiers on this day.

Drishtadyumna fought it out with Drona and had to be rescued by Bhima.

Satyaki killed Bhishma’s charioteer, and the horses went out of control taking Bhishma off the battlefield.

Day 3

On the third day Bhishma arrayed his forces in the form of a great bird, an eagle, and the army of the Pandavas was counter-arrayed in the shape of a half-moon, with the right horn commanded by Bhima, Yudishtira holding the center, and Arjuna managing the left horn. All morning, the armies fought and none gave way.

In the afternoon, Bhishma, invoked celestial astras, and mowed down the Pandava army on all sides. Krishna urged Arjuna, saying, "The hour is come when you must hold to your promise to slaughter the Kaurava army and fight Bhishmaf. Behold, your army is being destroyed by him alone." He drove the chariot to where Bhishma's chariot stood. Beholding him advancing, the Pandava host rallied, while Bhishma covered the onrushing chariot with his arrows. Arjuna, took Gandiva and sent forth arrows that cut the grandsire's bow in two. As Bhishma seized and strung another, that too was cut down.

With a third bow Bhishma sent forth arrows against Arjuna. Krishna, with great skill, avoided them but many still struck him and Arjuna. Krishna saw that Bhishma's arrows were again slaughtering the Pandava army, while Arjuna was fighting mildly, out of respect for Bhishma.

Afraid of the consequences, Krishna dropped the reins, leaped from the chariot, and ran toward Bhishma, whirling his discus, eager to slay him. But Arjuna ran after him, and, throwing his arms at his feet, stopped him. "Stop, O Krishna! Remember your promise not to fight; do not let men say you are a liar. I by my weapons, by the truth, by my own deeds, will destroy our foes. The task is mine." Hearing this, Krishna, angry still, mounted the car and took up the reins again.

Arjuna, drawing Gandiva summoned an astra and causing a river of blood from the Kaurava army. Every other sound was silenced by his bow. As the sun set the Kauravas withdrew, Bhishma and Drona with them, and the Pandavas triumphed that day.

Day 4

Abhimanyu is attacked by the Kauravas, and is aided by Arjuna, and Bhima with his mace. Duryodhana sends a huge force of elephants against him, which Bhima disperses. Finally, Bhima is struck by an arrow and has to rest a while. He however, kills eight of Duryodhana’s brothers by then.

Day 5-8

Every day Bhima slew six to ten of Duryodhana’s brothers, as per his oath during the gambling game. Therefore the Pandavas, though they often fought their cousins and struck them wounded, never slew them, so that Bhima could keep his promise. Several times he and Duryodhana fought, longing to kill each other, but they were equal neither prevailed. But Duryodhana, when he went each night to his tent, was overcome with grief, and wept for his brothers.

Day 9

Bhishma arrays the troops as a hollow square and wrecks much havoc upon the Pandava army. The exhausted Pandavas approach Bhishma at his camp at night, seeking his advice on how they may slay him. Bhishma tells them to use Shikhandi as a shield, for he would never raise his bow upon a woman.

Day 10

The Pandavas send Shikhandi against Bhishma, and Arjuna coming up behind him sends many arrows against Bhishma. Ten and ten more pierce Bhishma, who thought pierced by so many does not fall. Then the Pandavas surround Bhishma and driving off the Kauravas, pierce Bhishma with many an arrow until no space on his body greater than the breadth of two fingers remains to be seen.

Then Bhishma reeling under the pain falls, but his body does nottouch the ground and is held up by the arrow shafts. Both armies stop their battle in honor of the eldest of Bharatas and approach him seeking his advice. Arjuna gives him a pillow of three shafts to rest his head on and strikes the ground with a blazing arrow to provide him with a cool jet of sweet water.

Bhishma, with his power to choose the time of his death, seeks to stay alive till the sun turns to its northern run at the time of Uttarayana. Thus he lies there on his bed of arrows, waiting for the faithful moment.

Day 11-12

Karna enters the battle, thus far kept away by Bhishma. Drona is made the commander of the army, and Duryodhana asks him to capture Yudhisthara alive. Drona sets up the Trigarthas to draw away Arjuna from protecting his elder brother. However, towards the evening of both days, as Drona approaches Yudhisthara, the Pandava flees.

Day 13

Drona, deeply ashamed at failing in his mission, once again sets the Trigarthas to draw away Arjuna. He now sets up the indomitable Chakravyuha against the Pandava army. The Pandavas are at a loss to defend themselves since mong the Pandavas, only Arjuna knows how to break this array. However, Abhimanyu volunteers his services. But Abhimanyu knows only ow to break into the array and not how to break out. Yudhisthara and Bhima assure him that they will follow him closely to ensure that the gates of the formation stay open.

Abhimanyu sets out with the Pandavas following him, but inside the complex array, he is separated from the Pandavas by Jayadratha, who blocks the Pandavas from entering. Abhimanyu continues to the center, wrecking havoc upon the Kaurava army, until faced in an unfair battle by many Kaurava warriors including Drona, Karna, Ashwattama and three others, loses his chariot, horses, weapons and charioteer. He is slain by Dushasana’s son.

That night, Arjuna hears of the dastardly murder of his son, and vows to revenge himself upon Jayadratha. If he fails to slay him by sundown, he vows to immolate himself.

Day 14

Realizing that Arjuna will kill himself if only they protect Jayadratha from him till sundown, the Kauravas rally around the king and keep Arjuna at bay. Drona challenges Arjuna to distract him and they fight relentlessly, without managing to kill the other. Krishna, anxious that Arjuna's vow should be kept, drives the chariot forward, leaving Drona behind. Karna, Drona, Ashwattama and Duryodhana, all surround Arjuna to keep him from Jayadratha. The fearful fight raged till the sun approached the western hills. Krishna said to Arjuna, "You cannot kill Jayadratha till you have slain these warriors. I shall eclipse the sun in darkness so that they will think it has set and be less careful." Through his divine power, he eclipses the son, creating darkness and deceiving the Kauravas, who part way, thinking Arjuna must now take his life. But Arjuna fixes an astra and taking aim at Jayadratha, lets it loose. Jayadratha’s head is severed just as the eclipse ends and the sun begins to shine again. Seeing that they were deceived, the Kauravas weep in sorrow and anger.

Duryodhana, distraught, orders his army to fight through the night, and the two hosts lighting torches, continue their battle. But so tired are they that men are killed while they fell asleep, and many were killed by their friends in a daze. During this time, Gathokacha, the rakshasa son of Bhima wrecks havoc among the Kaurava, until he is felled by the Shakti, a weapon given to Karna by Indra. Karna was planning to use the Shakti against Arjuna However, Duryodhana, desperate to end Gathokacha’s carnage pleads with Karna to use it. Now Karna loses the weapon since it can be used only once and returns to Indra.

Then the two armies take a break and call a truce till the moon rises and rest upon the battlefield.

Day 15

The battle continues through moonrise and sunrise, when Drona begins to slaughter the Pandava army. Arjuna and Drona meet in a fierce battle but no side can prevail. Drona then fights both Virata and Drupada, killing them both. Seeing that no one can slay this fierce warrior, Krishna advices that they use deceit to kill him. Yudhisthara reluctantly agrees and Bhima is odered to kill an elephant named Ashwattaman, the “horse-voiced.”

Then when he is near Drona, he announces loudly, “I have killed Ashwattaman.” Drona’s legs turn to water, but he cannot believe that a mighty warrior like Ashwattama could be killed by Bhima. So he turns to Yudhisthara and asks him, “Is this true?” Yudhisthara, the ever-truthful replies in the affirmative. Drona is distraught. Overcome, he drops his weapons and goes into meditation to leave is body. Dristhadyumna in his rage rushes to the chariot and takes his head off while he is sitting in meditation.

Ashwattama enraged by his father’s death, let’s loose the Narayanastra against the Pandava army. Krishna tells everyone to lay down their weapons and lie on the ground, since this is the only way the weapon can be made harmless.

Kunti requests Karna to join the side of the Pandavas, telling him that he is her eldest son. But Karna says he will spare all the Pandavas, except Arjuna.

Day 16

Shalya is made charioteer of Karna, much to his dismay because though Karna matches Arjuna in archery, only Shalya can match Krishna as a charioteer.

Day 17

Bhima fights Dushasana and kills him, drinking his blood and taking it in his hands to drape across Draupadi’s hair.

Karna wounds Yudhisthara sorely, who leaves the battlefield to rest. Hearing this, Arjuna goes to his tent to see how he is. Yudhisthara however, in pain and anger, insults Arjuna, thinking that he has run from Karna. In shame and anger, Arjuna draws his sword against Yudhisthara, and has to be pacified by Krishna. Ashamed at their reckless acts and words, the two brothers seek each other’s forgiveness.

Karna and Arjuna battle each other in a ferocious fight, until Parashurama’s curse comes true and Karna’s chariot wheel sinks to the ground. As he gets down to remove the wheel, Krishna urges Arjuna to take his bow and slay Karna, as there would not be another chance to do so. Arjuna takes aim at Karna, and Karna is about to retaliate, taking up his bow. However, the other curse of Parashurama comes true and he forgets his astra mantras, and is slain by Arjuna.

Day 18

Shalya is made the commander of the Kauravas and battles and is killed by Yudhisthara. Shakuni is killed by Sahadeva. No one of the Kaurava army except Ashwattama, Duryodhana and Kripacharya and Kritavarma survive the war. Enraged by his loss, Duryodhana heads to a lake to cool down his body, which has become hot with anger.

Krishna takes the Pandavas to the lake and Bhima taunts Duryodhana out of it. As they fight a mace battle, Duryodhana is invincible because of his mother Gandhari’s boon that his body is impenetrable. However, his thighs are vulnerable, and Bhima’s strike’s Duryodhana’s thigh, felling him. In greta pain, Duryodhana is left to die by the Pandavas.

The Dog

The Indian Pariah Dog, considered by scientists to be the first truly domesticated dog features in the great Indian epic Mahabharat. The closing chapter narrates the tale of King Yudhisthira and his brothers (The Pandavas) making a pilgrimage to their final resting place. Our in-house expert, his highness Chunnu present Yudhisthira’s dog – Tale from Mahabharat.

The Pandavas were firm in their resolve to renounce their Kingdom and began the ascent of a mountain as part of their final journey. Yudhisthira led the way followed by Bheema, Arjuna, Nakula, Sahadeva and Draupadi. A dog also accompanied them through their journey.

The first to fall along the way was Draupadi (Yajnaseni).

“Why did she die first, Yudhisthira?” asked Bheema. “Was she not virtuous, possessing a good heart?”

Yudhisthira replied without looking back. “That is true, but she was more attached to Arjuna. That was her failing.”

The next to falter and collapse was Sahadeva.

“What was his failing, O Yudhisthira?” cried Bheema

Yudhisthira continued walking without looking back, and replied: “Pride in his intelligence was his failing.”

Next fell Nakula.

“What wrong did he do, O Yudhisthira?” wailed Bheema

Yudhisthira spoke, without looking back: “He admired his own good looks. That was his failing.”

Arjuna collapsed soon after.

“What wrong did Arjuna do, O Yudhisthira?” cried Bheema, overcome with grief.

Yudhisthira was unmoved and kept walking: “He was brilliant but conceited and over confident. That was his failing.”

Bheema fell thereafter, unable to bear the sorrow of seeing his brothers die.

Yudhisthira spoke while walking on: “Bheema was boastful about his strength and ate in excess. That was his failing”

And now only Yudhisthira and the dog were left, continuing the journey together.

And finally, Indra descended in his chariot. He praised the extraordinary qualities of Yudhisthira and invited him into the chariot to ascend to heaven.

“The dog must come with me,” said Yudhisthira

“That is not possible,” said Indra. “All cannot attain heaven. The dog is old and thin and has no value.”

“In that case, I do not seek heaven, “replied Yudhisthira. “The dog was my faithful companion and I cannot abandon it. It sought my help and gave me unconditional love. The pleasures of heaven will mean nothing to me in comparison to its grief. It has done nothing to deserve abandonment and had none of the weaknesses of my wife and brothers. If it does not deserve to go to heaven, then neither do I.”
And so he turned back.

“Stop!” cried Indra. “None have the qualities that you possess, O Yudhisthira! The dog is Dharma, from whom you have descended!”

And indeed, the dog had transformed into the God of Dharma and blessed Yudhisthira for his complete lack of selfishness and dedication to righteousness in all circumstances.

And thus rose Yudhisthira to heaven in the chariot of Indra.

The Bhagavad Gita

Introduction to the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavadgita, or the Song of the Lord, is a dialogue between Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, and his friend and disciple, Arjuna. This dialogue takes place in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata. The Bhagavadgita is composed of 700 (or 701) shlokas (verses) arranged in 18 chapters. It is one of the best-known philosophical texts of Hinduism, and is said to contain the essence of Upanishadic thought.

The Bhagavadgita occurs just before the great battle of Mahabharata begins. The army mustered by the five Pandava brothers was to fight the battle against the army of the Pandava’s cousin, Duryodhana, who had robbed them (the Pandavas) of their rightful kingdom and further, refused to participate in any plans for a compromise. After making all possible attempts to peacefully get back their kingdom, or even the right to own a mere five villages in the kingdom, the Pandava brothers decided to fight a war to gain justice.

Arjuna, the third of the five Pandava princes, was perhaps the greatest and most renowned warrior-hero in the Pandava army. Before the battle began, both Duryodhana and Arjuna went to Krishna to seek his aid. Krishna said that he would not personally lift weapons and fight in the battle, but the cousins could choose to have him, unarmed, on their side, or to have the use of his large army. Arjuna chose to have Krishna with him, and Duryodhana was delighted to add the vast, skilled army of Krishna to his forces. Krishna agreed to drive Arjuna’s chariot and thus to be with him throughtout the battle.

Just before the fighting commenced, Arjuna asked Krishna to place his chariot between the two armies, so that he could take a good look at his enemy. In the enemy ranks, Arjuna saw his cousins, other relatives and his teachers. At this crucial moment, Arjuna’s attachment to his preceptors and family came to the fore, and doubt entered his mind as to the ‘rightness’ of the battle. In his confusion, he no longer knew the course of action that he should take, and he turned to Krishna for guidance. Krishna talked to him, helping him to examine his own motives and desires, and showing him ways to rise above the limitations of his own personality to do what was best for him and good for society. This dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, is the Bhagavadgita.

The eighteen chapters of the Bhagavadgita are classified as ‘yoga’s’, starting with the ‘yoga’ of Arjuna’s depression and ending with the yoga of ‘liberation through renunciation’. The eighteen chapters are:

Chapter 1: अर्जुनविषादयोग - arjunavishadayoga
The Yoga of The Despondancy of Arjuna

Chapter 2: संख्यायोग - sankhyayoga
The Yoga of Knowledge

Chapter 3: कर्मयोग - karmayoga
The Yoga of Action

Chapter 4: ज्ञानविभगयोग - jyanavibhagayoga
The Yoga of The Division of Wisdom

Chapter 5: कर्मसंन्यासयोग - karmasannyasayoga
The Yoga of Renunciation of Action

Chapter 6: ध्यानयोग - dhyanayoga
The Yoga of Meditation

Chapter 7: ज्ञानविज्ञानयोग - gyanavigyanayoga
The Yoga of Wisdom and Realisation

Chapter 8: अक्षरब्रह्मयोग - aksharabrahmayoga
The Yoga of The Imperishable Brahman

Chapter 9: राजविद्याराजगुह्ययोग - rajavidyarajaguhyayoga
The Yoga of The Kingly Science and the Kingly Secret

Chapter 10: विभूतियोग - vibhutiyoga
The Yoga of The Divine Glories

Chapter 11: विस्वरूपदर्शनयोगा - visvarupadarshanayoga
The Yoga of The Vision of the Cosmic Form

Chapter 12: भक्तियोग - bhaktiyoga
The Yoga of Devotion

Chapter 13: क्षेत्रक्षेत्रविभागयोगा - kshetrakshetravibhagayoga
The Yoga of The Distinction between the Field and the Knower of the Field

Chapter 14: गुणत्रयविभागयोग - gunatrayavibhagayoga
The Yoga of The Division of the Three Gunas

Chapter 15: पुरुषोत्तमयोग - purushottamayoga
The Yoga of The Supreme Spirit

Chapter 16: दैवासुरसम्पद्विभागयोग - daivasurasampadvibhagayoga
The Yoga of The Division between the Divine and the Demoniacal

Chapter 17: श्रद्धात्रयविभागयोग - sraddhatrayavibhagayoga
The Yoga of The Division of the Threefold Faith

Chapter 18: मोक्षसंन्यासयोग - mokshasannyasayoga
The Yoga of Liberation by Renunciation.

3. Stories from Puranas, Epics and Vedas

The Story of Nala and Damayanti

King Nisadh of Ayodhya had two sons Nala and Kuvara. Nala wanted to marry Damayanti, the beautiful daughter of king Bhima. Damayanti did not know him, so Nala sent his swan to her. The swan flew to Damayanti's palace and finding her alone in the garden, sang praises of Nala. Meanwhile, King Bhima arranged swayamvara for his daughter, where many princes gathered from whom Damayanti could chose her husband. Damayanti chose Nala and they got married.

When King Nishadh died, Nala became king. He conquered many other kingdoms and became famous. This made his brother Kuvara jealous. He knew gambling was Nala's weakness. Kuvara challenged Nala to a game of dice in which Nala lost everything. Kuvara became the king and banished Nala from his kingdom. Nala went to the forest and Damayanti, who loved him very much, followed him. As they walked in the forest, Damayanti injured her feet. Nala did not want the delicate Damayanti to go through hardships with him, so when she was sleeping he left her and went ahead. Further into the forest, he found a snake on the top of a tree that had caught fire from below. As he tried to bring it down, the snake bit him and Nala turned dark and developed a hunchback. Nala asked the snake, "Why did you bite me? I was trying to save your life." The snake said, "I am your father Nisadh. The next twelve years will be full of difficulties for you. I changed your appearance to protect you from your enemies. Whenever you want to get back your original looks wear this ornament."

Nala proceeded to another kingdom. Meanwhile, when Damayanti woke up she found a note from Nala asking her to go to her parents. As she moved ahead, she met a demon that threatened to eat her. Impressed with her fearlessness he came into his real form. He was actually a god, who told her that she would unite with her husband after twelve years. Damayanti proceeded to Achalpura kingdom where she became the queen's maid. Nala went to the kingdom of Samsumara and became a servant of the king. Many years passed.

One day, King Bhima's men found Damayanti in Achalpura and brought her back to her father. King Bhima tried to find Nala but failed, so he made a plan. He arranged the swayamvar of Damayanti knowing that when Nala came to know about the second marriage of his wife, he would certainly come to her. King Bhima was right. Nala came with his master, the king of Samsumara. A day before the swayamvara Damayanti saw the dark hunch back servant. She immediately recognised him. Nala also put on the ornament given by his father and regained his original looks. But the swayamvara had been arranged to Damayanti asked him to be present there. On the day of swayamvara she put the garland around Nala's neck and they were united. The twelve-year period was also over. With the help of King Bhima's army, Nala won his kingdom back and again became the king of Ayodhya.

Nala and DamayantiOne day, a monk visited Nala's palace and told him the reason why he had to undergo the twelve-year exile. In their previous birth also Nala and Damayanti were king and queen and they had thrown an innocent monk in prison. Their exile was a punishment for their karma of a previous birth. Eventually, Nala and Damayanti had a son Pushkara. After making him the king, they renounced the world in search of spiritual enlightment.

The Story of Nachiketa and Yama

Vajasrawas, a famous person during the ancient India, was performing a sacrifice in which the performer had to give away all his wealth. It was a unique occasion. The place was beautifully decorated. The rishis attended in great number and they were chanting the mantras while offering to the holy fire.

Vajasrawas had a son named Nachiketa, who was sixteen years old. At the end of the sacrifice, Vajasrawas announces grandly that he is giving away all his possessions including a large herd of cows to the teachers and saints, who had come from all the places. Nachiketa was standing next to his father and observing his father gifting away the cows one by one. Nachiketa was surprised to see his father gifting away old cows which could not walk properly or give milk. Nachiketa felt that by giving these cows his father would not get the desired result of the sacrifice.

Nachiketa protests in a loud whisper, “You are not giving away all your possessions! Dad, Am I not your possession?” Nachiketa asked his father to whom he would like to gift his son to. The father did not pay much attention to his question. Nachiketa repeatedly asked the same question. His father became angry and replied, “I give you to Yama, the God of death.”

Vajasrawas did not mean what he said. He had uttered these words in anger. No father would like to send their son away to the land of death. Nachiketa decided to obey the words of his father by going to the abode of Yama. Vajasrawas asked his little son to stay back. Nachiketa loved his father and did not like to disobey him. But at the same time he was very firm. Folding his hands he told his father that their ancestors never went back on their words and he would like to follow the same. He wanted his father to follow the same tradition. Nachiketa knew that all the things in this world are temporary and he was not afraid of death. He understood that following the path of truth is the gateway to heaven.

Vajasrawas was very sad but gave him permission as a follower of truth. Nachiketa left for the abode of Yama. On reaching there he found that Yama was not at home. For three days and night the young boy waited without food, water and sleep at the doorstep of Yama’s abode. Yama on his return, was deeply grieved to see that there was no to welcome Nachiketa. Yama himself greeted him with due respect. For having kept Nachiketa waiting for three days, Yama granted him three boons. Nachiketa said, “I seek the welfare of my father as my first boon.” He granted him happily. “Sir I desire to know how one could reach heaven where there is no sorrow, old age or death”.Nachiketa did not ask this second boon for himself but for the sake of the people. He wanted everyone to learn this secret knowledge and free themselves for the sufferings.

Yama was pleased with the unselfishness of Nachiketa. Yama gave all the details of a particular sacrifice, the performance of which would take one to heaven.As Nachiketa was an intelligent and a sincere boy blessed with a spiritual knowledge, he could understand all that was taught. Yama was pleased with him and in appreciation, named that particular sacrifice after Nachiketa himself.Nachiketa asked, “Respected Sir. What happens to a man after death? I should like to know the truth from you. This I ask for the third boon.”

Yama had not expected this question from a young boy. He tried to divert him but Nachiketa was very firm. He wanted to know the answer. Yama was very pleased but he tried to divert the attention with lot of attractive things. Nachiketa declined all these worldly pleasures. Yama was pleased with such a young truth-seeker who had rejected the path of enjoyment and chose the path of goodness. Then Yama taught him the knowledge of the Atman, realizing which man attains immortality.

This forms the subject matter of one of the Upanishads called Katha Upanishad.

The Story of Ganga

Ganga is considered to be the purest rivers in India. It is believed that anyone who bathes in the Ganga would be purified of all the sins committed by him. In the Vamana Avatar of Lord Vishnu, Bali the Asura King had promised to give Vamana – a dwarf three steps of land to perform his meditation. Lord Vishnu who was the Vamana, then assumed assumed the Trivikrama form, where he became huge so huge that measured the earth in one step, the heaven in another. Bali then offered his head as the third step. Lord Vishnu pressed Bali and pushed him to the netherworld. When Lord Vishnu measured the heavens, Lord Brahma washed his feet with some water. From that water a beautiful girl – Ganga was born in Lord Brahma's kamandalam. Ganga was full of mischief and always pulled pranks on everyone. She danced and sang beautifully and the Devas loved to come to listen to her and watch her dance.

Once many of the Devas and the rishis had come to watch Ganga sing and dance. Ganga had just finished dancing, when there was gust of wind. Sage Durvasa had come to watch the dance. Like all rishis he was dressed in a simple manner. The gust of wind blew away Sage Durvasa's clothing. All the Devas knowing Sage Durvasa's reputation as an angry man, immediately turned their head away and tried not to laugh at him. However Ganga was unable to control herself and burst out laughing looking at the sage. Furious with Ganga, Sage Durvasa cursed her, 'Proud girl! You are making fun of me instead of helping me! You do not deserve to live in the heavens. You deserve to go to earth. Go and flow as a river on the earth where you rightly belong!' Ganga was shocked when she heard the Sage's words. Apologetically she ran to Sage Durvasa and fell at his feet. 'Please great sage! I was proud! Please think of me as your daughter and forgive me...'

Sage Durvasa looked at Ganga and softened himself. Filled with pity he spoke, 'My words cannot be taken back, Ganga. But since you have asked I will grant you a boon that when you flow on the earth you will be the purest river there. If anyone comes and bathes in your waters, they would be purified of all their sins.' So saying Sage Durvasa left, leaving Ganga unhappy and sorry as she had to leave her friends and go to earth.

Meanwhile on earth, in the kingdom of Ayodhya, there lived King Sagara. King Sagara had 60,000 sons. King Sagara fought long and hard with all the Asuras surrounding his kingdom. Subsequently after same years of battled, he was finally able to destroy the Asuras. His kingdom was safe again. King Sagara ruled his people well and soon the treasures of his kingdom were full and people were happy and content. King Sagara decided that now was the time; he had to perform the 'AshwamedaYagna' to declare his supremacy. In the AshwamedaYagna, a horse was let loose and went all over the world. If the horse entered another kingdom, the other kings either had to accept the supremacy of the king whose horse it was or fight the other king. If King Sagar completed the AshwamedaYagna, he would become the undisputed leader of the world. Looking at this, Lord Indra, the king of the Heavens grew very jealous. He was very afraid that if King Sagara completed his Yagna, he would become more powerful than Indra himself.

Indra turned invisible and went near the horse. He stole the horse and was about to carry it to heaven, when he stopped thinking something...If I carry this horse to my palace, King Sagara may find it and even challenge me to a fight. What if he wins...? ...I will hide the horse in some other place so that my hand should never be suspected. Thinking thus Indra hid the horse in the ashram of a sage Kapila. Now Sage Kapila also had a reputation to have a very bad temper. King Sagara sent his 60,000 sons to look for the horse. They finally found the horse in the Ashram of Sage Kapila. Sage Kapila was deep in meditation when the sons arrived there. The sons got angry thinking that Sage Kapila had kidnapped the horse. ‘You call yourself a sage?' One of them said, 'You have stolen the horse of the AshwamedhaYagna...?' The sons angrily yelled, 'Thief! This man is a thief!' Sage Kapila was disturbed by the loud noise made by the sons of King Sagara.

Annoyed the sage opened his eyes. When he opened his eyes, he heard sounds of 'Thief...thief...' By the power of his penance, he realised that these people thought that he was a thief. This enraged Sage Kapila so much that he used his powers and burnt all of the sons of King Sagara – all the 60,000 of them. If the last rites of a person are not done properly, it is believed that they do not reach heaven. So the sons of King Sagara roamed as ghosts on earth.

Anshuman, the grandson of King Sagara, when he heard this, ran to Sage Kapila. He fell on Sage Kapila's feet. 'Great sage, please have mercy on us... My uncles..' He said pointing at the ash around him, 'they are doomed...they will never go to heaven...' Anshuman let out a tired sob, 'they will always roam the earth...please...'Anshuman had tears in his eyes, 'my uncles do not deserve this...Please great sage!'  Looking at the teary face of Anshuman, Sage Kapila felt sorry for him. He looked around at the ashes and said, 'Son! There is a beautiful river called as Ganga in the heavens. She is born from Vishnu. If she flows on your uncles, your brothers would attain heaven...' However neither Anshuman, nor his son Dilip was successful in bringing down Ganga from the heavens. Their penance did not bear any fruit. Finally Dilip's son Bhageerath also started the penance for bringing down Ganga to the earth.

Finally pleased with him, Lord Brahma appeared before him. Bhageerath fell on Lord Brahma's feet, 'Lord, there is nothing that you do not know.. I am praying so that my ancestors are relieved from their curse and ascend to the heavens. Please send your daughter to the earth...’  Brahma had no objection torelease Ganga, except that Bhageerath first had to worship Shiva, so that he would accept to hold the force of Ganga in his hairs, lest she would overwhelm the entire Earth. Thus Bhageerath undertook further penances to please Shiva. When Ganga descended from the heavens, Shiva covered the sky with his hair locks, so that not a drop wouldfall on Earth.  When he had fully captured Ganga, Shiva released a small part of Ganga’s force and told her to followBhageerath. When Ganga flooded the ashram of saint Janu, he swallowed her as a lesson in respect and onlyreleasedGanga out of pity for Bhageerath. Wherever Ganga wouldflow in following Bhageerath, peoplecame in large numbers to bath and obtain purification. Finally Ganga reached the ashram of sage Kapila and freed the 60,000 sous from their ashes. Ganga continues to purify the people that take bath in her and is herself purified by the saints who will bath in her water.

The Story of Sakuntala

Shakuntala was a beautiful maiden who was the adopted daughter of Sage Karnva. She lived with him and her pet deer, in his hermitage in the forest. One day, Dushyanta, the king of Hastinapur, came hunting in the forest. He saw the beautiful deer and shot an arrow at it. Shakuntalsa found her deer whimpering in pain and tried to comfort it. Shakuntala loved the animals of the forest and her affection for the animal touched Dushyanta's heart and he asked her to forgive him for his cruelty. She forgives him but asked him to stay in the forest for a few days to tend the wounded deer. They fell in love and King Dushyanta married Shakuntala and gave her a wedding ring his name on it. The king then left for his king-dom after promising to return soon and take Shakuntala back with him.

One day , Sage Durwasa came to Shakuntala's door. He repeatedly asked for water, but Shakuntala was lost in thoughts of Dushyanta and paid no attention. The sage was insulted and got very angry. Known for his temper, he cursed Shakuntala saying that the person whom she was thinking about would forget her. When Shakuntala heard the cause, she was frightened and begged the sage to forgive her. The sage said that he could not the back the curse but he could change, if she showed Dushyanta something he had given her then he will remember again about her.

Due to the curse Dushyanta forgot Shakuntala. After days of waiting for him to return, Shakuntala decided to go to the capital to meet him. On the way, as Shakuntala was crossing a river, her wedding ring fell into the water. A fish swallowed the ring. When Shakuntala arrived at the palace, the king did not recognize her. He asked her to prove her identity but Shakuntala didn't have the ring to show him, as it was lost. She wept and told the king about the time he had spent with her in the forest but he couldn't remember anything. Feeling sad she left the palace.

Ashamed to return to her father's home, she started living alone in another part of the forest where she gave birth to a son. She called him Bharata. Bharata was a brave boy. He grew up among the animals of the forest and would play with wild animals.

One day at the king's palace, a fisherman brought him a ring. He told the king that he had found the ring in the stomach of a fish that he had brought it straight to him. As soon as the king saw the ring, the curse was broken and the king remembered Shakuntala. He was very upset and hurried at once to her home in the forest to look for her, but could not find her. In despair, he returned to his palace.

Few years passed. The king again went hunting in the forest. There he was surprised to find a boy playing with a lion cub. The boy fearlessly held open the mouth of the cub and said, " O king of the jungle! Open your mouth wide, so I can count your teeth." The king went up to the boy and asked him about his parents. The little boy replied that he was the son of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala. Dushyanta was very happy to have found Shakuntala and asked the boy to take him to his mother. The family was united and Dushyanta took Shakuntala and Bharata along with him to Hastinapur. Bharata grew up to become a great king.